Liaquat Ali Khan’s Assassination: The Unsolved Mystery

08/13/2022

The following Research paper “the assassination of Liaquat Ali khan” is a piece of “investigative journalism” and being students of Graduate-level, however we could not get our hands on primary sources therefore, we relied completely on the investigation conducted by other sources.

Primarily by Syed Muhammad Zulqarnain Zaidi, under the name, The Assassination of the Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan: The Fateful Journey, hence crediting the author.

Abstract

The first Prime Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, was killed in one of the most tragic unsolved mysterious killings that Pakistan has ever experienced. The research paper aims to address several features regarding the assassination of the premier; the episode as it happened, the investigations, the gaps in the inquiry report, the actual perpetrators, and their motives.

The study gathered data from publications, journals, books, etc .The Enquiry Commission on the assassination declared it a conspiracy that involved a change of government. To unearth this conspiracy, we explored and discovered the hidden conspirators and cohorts.

This research paper may lead us to some very concrete facts, thereby opening a new horizon of concealed truths and hidden treacheries wrapped in the womb of conspiracy.

Assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan

Pakistan has been a core of unsolved assassinations for political concerns, be it Liaquat Ali Khan, Zia-ul-Haq, Osama Bin Laden, or Benazir Bhutto.

The assassination of the first Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan derailed the country from the path of democracy and irreparably damaged the foundations of the fragile democratic structure of the State of Pakistan.

The introduction of the cult of bullets undermined the sanctity of the ballot and opened the political arena for the Army to take over.

The Nation’s Situation

The country fell into darkness and got lost in an oligarchic wasteland that stole from the people and made them even poorer and less powerful.

Politicians, philosophers, lawyers, and historians who were smug and uncaring about the national disaster was a worse crime than Liaquat Ali Khan’s cold-blooded murder, which was never mourned or forgotten.

Corruption, poverty, dishonesty, self-centrism, and greed of the people involved, have hindered the way of fair and transparent investigation to catch the real culprits.

The way LAK’s murder investigation had taken place, has put several question marks on the investigating team and the Enquiry Commission.

The level of conspiracy and cunning behavior shown makes it very clear that not a single person could be held accountable as done by the Enquiry Commission.

This firing has deep roots in political motivations that the Commission either failed to detect or were compelled to stay quiet about after discovering the truth.

This study report will attempt to disclose the hidden faces that have been believed innocent up until now.

The objective of the Study

The paper aims to showcase the entire incident of the cold-blooded assassination of Pakistan’s premier, Liaquat Ali Khan, pinpoint the loopholes of the investigation by the Enquiry Commission, highlight the probable beneficiaries of the episode, and their motives behind the ploy, and the impact of such a loss over Pakistan.

Research Questions

The following main questions shall be answered by the end of the paper,

Who were the beneficiaries of the Assassination?
Was the incident a consequence of personal hatred against Liaquat Ali Khan or a sequel to bigger and international propaganda?
Was the report of the Enquiry Commission transparent or manipulated?

SECTION-I

The Incident

Liaquat Ali Khan arrived at Rawalpindi Chaklala Air Base in Governor General’s Aircraft ‘Viking’ at 11:30 a.m. He was going to address a public meeting organized by Pakistan Muslim League, Rawalpindi.

The Prime Minister arrived at around 4 p.m. in the Company Bagh. “A huge crowd of about 100,000 persons had assembled to welcome and listen to the Premier.

“The proceedings of the meeting started with the recitation from the Holy Quran, followed by the welcome address of Masud Sadiq, the President of the Municipal Committee, Rawalpindi.

After the welcome address the President of the City Muslim League, Sheikh Mohammad Omar, spoke a few words in honor of the Prime Minister and invited him to address the audience.

The Prime Minister straight away walked to the microphone and had hardly said, ‘Baradran-i-Millat’ [Dear Brothers] when the sound of two shots rent the air.

The people saw the Prime Minister staggering and falling on his back. For a few seconds there was a lull of that was broken by the sound of a third shot. The Prime Minister had been shot.

Crowd Reaction

The people were stunned by the deep silence that prevailed. Then as the people realized what had happened, they started crying and weeping, saying, “Quaid-i-Millat Mara Gaya” [Urdu: The leader of the Nation has been killed].

Mushtaq Ahmad Gurmani transported the unconscious Prime Minister to the Combined Military Hospital after the Reserve Guard stopped firing indiscriminately. Drs. Col. Mian and Sarwar attempted in vain to remove the Premier’s bullets, but he was dead.

A mass of weeping, praying individuals waited outside the hospital for word about the PM. Mr. Gurmani emerged from the operating room waving to the spectators. Dr. Col. Mian, the operating surgeon, informed the gathering, “My lips are sealed.” He died at 4:50 p.m.

Enquiry Commission on assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan

On November 1, 1951, the Government of Pakistan appointed a Commission presided over by Mr. Justice Mohammad Muneer to investigate the matter of Liaquat Ali Khan’s assassination.

Important Characters of the Story

Mr. James Hardy

An Englishman, then serving as Deputy Commissioner of Rawalpindi. He was the first person to have rushed to the rescue of the fallen Prime Minister.

According to him,” The wounded Premier had Kalima on his lips until he became unconscious. I bent on the Premier and asked him whether he had been hit by the third explosion? He replied in English that he felt pain on the left side of his back.

Foot Constable Lal Mohammad

He was a Pathan and could understand Pushto. Lal Mohammad stated that he heard Khan Najaf Khan, who was Superintendent of police saying in Pushto ‘da cha daza? ooka ula’ [Pashto: who has fired? shoot him!] but, he could not execute the orders as he had not seen the killer.

Khan Najaf Khan

Superintendent of police, in his statement Khan Najaf Khan said that he was just behind the Late Prime Minister at the back of the dais when he was fired at.

While being counter-questioned, he refused to admit whether he had uttered the words or not. Moreover, he said Sub-inspector Mohammad Shah shot down Said Akbar, but he should not have done so.

Islam Din

The retired Railway Jamadar, in his evidence said that he was sitting close to Said Akbar. He was just behind him. Suddenly he heard two shots.

He looked ahead of him and saw Said Akbar holding a pistol in his left hand. He stated: “After the shots were fired the people started running and the man himself was about to go but I rushed at him.

I hit him behind the neck to make him drop the pistol. He still held the pistol in his left hand. I was struggling to overpower him when he fired the third shot”. I saw Chaudhry Maula Dad sitting on a chair in confusion.

Chaudhry Maula Dad

Chaudhry Maula Dad stated that he was sitting on one of the chairs in the front row to the left of the dais. In front of him, among the first two or three intervening rows of the audience was sitting a man whom the witness noticed behaving somewhat suspiciously.

The Premier had scarcely spoken “Baradran-e-Millat” when the witness observed the suspicious-looking guy draw a gun on him. Witness witnessed the Premier fall after two shots.

When the witness approached the guy, Lal Din had already apprehended him.He further described that after some struggle he succeeded in disarming the culprit in a couple of minutes and took the pistol into his possession.

Mohammad Shah

Mohammad Shah, who was a Sub-inspector stated that he was near the dais when the incident occurred. When he heard two shots fired by a man 13 yards from him. The man was still on his knees and had the pistol in his hand.

The Sub-inspector brought out his revolver and ran toward him. He was still at three or four yards from him when he fired the third shot. The witness fired five shots at him to make certain that he was dead.

Dilawar Khan

Dilawar Khan was the eleven-year-old son of Said Akbar, the alleged assassin. They sat on the ground in front of the dais of the Premier.Dilawar Khan said his father pulled a gun and fired as the prime minister spoke. Then some men in green uniforms caught his father and pierced him with spears.

SECTION-II

The Enquiry Commission Report

After conducting what they called, a “thorough examination” of the whole plethora of eyewitnesses’ accounts, evidence, and documents produced before it, the commission was undoubtedly convinced that it was Said Akbar.

Even if the panel targeted Said Akbar from the start, rather than discovering the genuine perpetrator! They were attempting to build up Said Akbar’s intentions as the assassin; they never looked at alternative angles or maybe they did but didn’t want to make it public.

After researching and documenting evidence and eyewitness testimonies, the Commission decided there were signs of three conspiracies. Two were never brought up since their publication was not in the national interest.

It suggests the commission tried to hide someone because the outcomes may harm national security. So, an innocent was slain because it was in the best interests of the State and those involved.

This itself says a lot about our judicial system and justice!! The investigation also said, “The assassination was not Said Akbar’s solo act and must have included a government shift.” This wasn’t probed, thus the truth was never revealed.

The Commission had eyewitness stories, evidence, testimonials, and the time of explosions.Mentioning them is important because it would reveal some of the false statements of the witnesses.

Time of Explosions

The first two explosions happened within a second, according to a graphic developed by the Commission and Radio Pakistan. The third explosion took place between the 8^th and 9^th seconds. The fourth one was at the 16^th second.

The fifth and the sixth took place at the 19^th and 20^th seconds respectively. Then the double shot at the 21^st second. After that three shots between the 22^nd and 23^rd seconds and a single shot at the 24^th second.

Then there were 16 seconds, and the 12^th explosion was heard between the 41^st and 42^nd second. The 15th shot was fired at the 43rd second. According to Brig. Dixon, the final four explosions occurred at 44, 45, 46, and 48 seconds amid enormous noise.

Thus, within 48 seconds the whole gory drama had come to an end. Two handgun rounds in less than a second killed the Prime Minister. Sub-inspector Mohammad Shah shot and killed Said Akbar between the 16th and 42nd seconds.

Loopholes of the Commission Report

Maula Dad’s False Testimony

The first uncertainty in the inquiry is Maula Dad’s falsehoods, which the investigator trusts, maybe because he was taught to.

Maula Dad stated he witnessed the perpetrator point a pistol at the PM. He was so bold that he cut through hundreds of people to reach Said Akbar and take the terrorist’s pistol.

According to the evidence of Islam Din: “Chaudhry Maula Dad was sitting in a chair in that confusion.” How did Mohammad Shah reach the assassin in 14 seconds?

Mohammad Shah fired his first shot at 16 seconds and his fifth at 42 seconds, according to Radio Pakistan. This brings about many doubtful questions regarding Maula Dad’s statement as well as the sincerity of the investigating team.

Mohammad Shah’s made-up Truth

The next shortcoming was the statement of Mohammad Shah, the Sub-inspector of police who confessed to having killed Said Akbar. Describing the circumstances, he stated that he was 13 yards from the assassin.

He was still at a distance of three-four yards when Said Akbar fired the third shot. The witness brought out his revolver and fired five shots at him to make certain that he was dead.

In his confessional statement, he had conceded that there was great confusion and the whole crowd had started to run. How did Mohammad Shah cover 13 yards in 14 seconds to reach the assassin?

The Radio Pakistan chart of explosions and timings showed that Mohammad Shah fired his first shot at 16 seconds and his fifth at 42 seconds.

Thus within 26 seconds, he had killed the assassin. But the question is how he moved 13 yards in 14 seconds when thousands of people were heading towards the dais.

We must not forget that he was standing near the dais. How is such a mad crowd of thousands of people Mohammad Shah moved to Said Akbar within 14 seconds?

Sons’ Statement

How could the commission even consider the statement that of such a young boy ? as he could have been a prisoner of circumstances and a puppet in the hands of police? He could have been tutored and tailored to speak against his father by the prosecution.

Liaquat Ali Khan’s Testimony

Now, Liaquat Ali Khan’s back ache was the most essential neglected detail. According to James Hardy, the Premier complained of back discomfort, indicating that the bullet entered from the rear.

In an interview, Dr. Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi informed the author that once Mr. A.K. Brohee told him that Liaquat Ali Khan was fired at from his backside.

Absence of Ghurmani and Ghulam Mohammad

Ghulam Muhammad and Ghurmani didn’t welcome the premier or attend the public gathering, but they miraculously came during the performance and remained by his side till he got the news.

Their strange absence puts further questions over the report of the Commission. All notable political leaders attended the Air Base event to greet the Prime Minister.

Ghulam Muhammad and Ghurmani did not greet the premier or attend the public gathering, but they magically appeared at the performance at the time of the assassination and stayed by his side till he learned the news.

Commissions’ Credibility

Why was the panel so sure Said Akbar was behind the killing that they invented his motives? And why did they not go for other perspectives? And why did they not reveal the other two scenarios? All these actions of the Commission are clearly showing them to be suspicious.

Tensions between Liaquat Ali Khan and the probable Culprit

Ghulam Mohammad

We should discuss the connection and circumstances that led to the confrontation between Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan and Finance Minister Ghulam Muhammad.

Many contentious issues strained their relations and sowed the seeds of disharmony and discord leading to acrimony and hostility, which in the end turned into a battle of survival.

The Objectives Resolution was the first major constitutional issue, which became a bone of contention between Liaquat Ali Khan and Ghulam Muhammad. Ghulam Muhammad and his faction were deadly opposed to the Objective Resolution.

Ghulam Muhammad’s point of view was that the State should not be based upon religion. The Objectives Resolution was a retrogressive measure against democratic norms and values.

It would promote orthodoxy and intolerance in society and would encourage reactionary forces of clerics. Religion should be a private affair of an individual, and the State should have no truck with it.
The other grave issue, which bogged their relations and poisoned the whole political environment was related to foreign relations. In the beginning, Liaquat Ali Khan had outrightly tilted towards America.

It was Ghulam Muhammad who had sabotaged the Russian invitation extended to Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan to visit Moscow but Ghulam Muhammad changed the entire dimension of Pakistan’s foreign relations by ‘extracting an invitation from the US long before Liaquat Ali Khan traveled to Moscow on a state visit.’

Ghulam’s cunningness

That was a time when Ghulam Muhammad enjoyed the trust and confidence of Liaquat Ali Khan, but the wilderness of politics has unique infidelity of its own which is unpredictable and very volatile.
The relations between Prime Minister and Ghulam Muhammad took a sinister turn when the relations between India and Pakistan got strained and both countries reached the brink of war.

Liaquat Ali Khan was dissatisfied that America didn’t support Pakistan and wouldn’t join in a war.

Therefore, Liaquat Ali Khan decided to chart a new course, which indicated his positive turn towards Russia and the formation of a Muslim Block to assert his position and meet new challenges and threats.
In the realization of his new policy, Liaquat Ali Khan wanted to have new colleagues and new friends. Those who were committed to the American block were unacceptable in the new setup.

By August/September 1951, Prime Minister and Ghulam Muhammad’s ties were tense and antagonistic. The immediate reason for Liaquat Ali’s annoyance and displeasure was Ghulam Muhammad’s outburst against the Government of Pakistan in Bombay.

Mr. M. B. Ahmad, who was the first Secretary of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan said to the Prime Minister how a member of the cabinet might criticize his government in a foreign land?” Action against him should be taken.

He should resign. So, Liaquat Ali Khan told Ghulam Muhammad, “Make yourself ready to go.”
Ghulam Mohammad and Mushtaq Ahmed Ghurmani hated Liaquat Ali Khan, thus they helped the U.S. destroy him from politics.

The Real Truth

Said Akbar: The Assassin

The plot began with the cold-blooded murder of Said Akbar, who was enticed to Rawalpindi to meet with the Prime Minister to increase his stipend from the public fund.

“Earlier, a year before, he had applied to this effect to the governor of NWFP but to no avail.” At that time the competent authority to enhance allowances was the Prime Minister only.

He came with his kid in hopes of resolving his financial problems. Son of a tribal chieftain and ex-Brigadier in the Afghan Army, he donned a black turban.

He had come to see the Prime Minister. He had not come to kill him. Why did he bring his little kid on a suicide mission to murder the PM? This is unnatural and absolutely against human nature.

Said Akbar: An Afghan National

Soon after the incident, the Pakistani government took no time to declare Said Akbar the assassin as an Afghan nationality holder.

Resultingly, the Afghani government reacted by proclaiming that Said Akbar’s nationality had been turned down long ago for his anti-national activities and that he was currently taking refuge at the NWFP (now Khyber Pakhtun Khwa) given by the Britishers before independence.

Soon it was found that the Pakistani government paid Said Akbar the amount set by the English before division. This revelation denounces the accusation of Said Akbar being an Afghani national and involved in anti-Pakistan terrorist activities.

The mob swarmed on Akbar after he fired, according to the New York Times.

A policeman who was assigned to kill the assassin shot one of the rounds at him. (Hassnain,2016). Said Akbar’s history gave assassins a compelling reason to attack him.

By targeting him because of his pre-Afghan citizenship and membership in anti-national groups, authorities erased a critical piece of evidence.It placed another question mark on the country’s history of unsolved assassination cases.

Foreign hands behind the murder of Liaquat Ali Khan

President Truman welcomed Jawaharlal Nehru to Washington DC in 1949. Instead of inviting a pro-American and pro-Western ally, the US invited a Socialist leader.

To satisfy Liaquat Ali Khan’s damaged ego, Muslim League’s senior member, Raja Ghazanfar Khan proposed another plan. LAK told Ali Alvi he’d visit Russia over dinner. On 2 June 1949, Liaquat Ali Khan visited the Soviet Union.

Now he’d visit Moscow. But Pakistan’s pro-West bureaucracy was dissatisfied with the policy change and Liaquat Ali Khan.

Liaquat Ali Khan’s death is another unsolved riddle in Pakistan’s history. Conspiracy theories surround the case but without investigative evidence, theoretical evidence cannot substantiate much progress.

Leaked Document

A leaked State Department document indicates a telegraph was sent to the US embassy in New Delhi on 30 October 1951.The message summarized an article published in an Urdu newspaper of Bhopal, ‘Nadeem’ on October 24, 1951, accusing the US with Liaquat Ali Khan’s killing.

It wasn’t a local occurrence or part of the Pashtoonistan movement, the report says (as some may have believed then). It had a conspiracy and unmistakable hand.(Aziz,2006).”

The article then says that the then Afghan government “knew about the conspiracy and the assassin was an Afghan, yet the plot was hatched neither in Kabul nor in Karachi (the then capital of Pakistan) (Aziz,2006).”

The article exposed the fact that the day before the assassination, the secretary to the American ambassador in Karachi absent-mindedly jotted down ‘holiday’ for October 19 in a table diary and then immediately struck it off (Aziz,2006).

After the secretary departed, Mohammad Hasnain (an employee at the embassy) inquired the clerk about the holiday to which he responded as a probable mistake.

How did the Secretary know the embassy would be closed on 17 October when neither American nor Pakistani holidays were scheduled?

Call to Raana Liaquat Ali Khan

Another important event pointed out by the article was that the American ambassador called Raana Liaquat Ali Khan and commiserated for Liaquat Ali Khan’s death, which was technically three and a half minutes earlier than the Governor General’s (Khwaja Nazimuddin) call to Liaquat Ali Khan’s wife (Aziz, 2006).

The official authorities notified the Governor General about Liaquat Ali Khan’s death first. This was no coincidence.
Those were technologically different days without cellphone connection, live broadcasts, or TV.

How did the American ambassador learn of the incident before Pakistan’s governor-general?

Pointing out the possible reasons behind the United States’ involvement in the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan, the following motives were outlined.

US and UK governments were disappointed with Pakistan’s PM for not toeing the US line. (Aziz, 2011).

“When Mohammad Mosaddeq nationalized the oil fields in Iran, US and UK pressed Pakistan to utilize its influence in Tehran and persuade Iran to transfer the control to United States Liaquat Ali Khan denied accepting the request”.

Liaquat Ali Khan also demanded that the United States pull out of the air bases in Pakistan. “The US then threatened to annul the secret pact on Kashmir (between Pakistan and the US) (Aziz, 2011)”.

Liaquat replied “Pakistan has annexed half of Kashmir without American support and would be able to take the other half too.” His demand stunned Washington, which wanted to surveil and conquer Soviet Russia from Pakistan air bases.(Aziz,2011).” And hence the plot to kill him was hatched.

Future Impact of the Tragedy

In his book “The American Role in Pakistan”, M. S. Venkataramani writes that “a single bullet from Liaquat Ali Khan’s assassin proved to be the catalyst of change.”

It was such an incident in which not only the Prime Minister was killed but the whole political scenario of the entire region got changed.

It was the decisive time in Pakistan’s history because Liaquat Ali Khan was the only person from whom we might have anticipated judgments in the best interests of the country and its people.

The last person whom we could have trusted just like Quaid-e-Azam himself was gone. He who could have dared to take decisions without fear for the best of Pakistan.

He with whom all the expectations and hopes of the nation resided, was gone. The last person who could have made Pakistan, an embodiment of Quaid’s vision, was gone.

After LAK’s passing

After Liaquat Ali Khan passing, the dishonest, self-serving, deceitful, treacherous, and prejudiced mafia was allowed to flourish. The LAK assassination era, nobody in Pakistani politics worried about the needs of the assassins, who were publicly granted major roles and positions.
The murder of Liaquat Ali Khan was not something that the average person could forget or forgive.

He tried his utmost to provide relief to the public; never tolerated profiteering, artificially created food price hikes, and socio-economic injustice; for which practices, the people would regard him as their hero forever.

The clue to this fact is hidden in the writing of President Mohammad Ayub Khan in his popular book, Friends not Masters. He writes,

“I wondered at how callous and cold-blooded and selfish people could be. The termination of the Prime Minister’s life had come as the beginning of a new career for them.

It seemed that every one of them had got himself promoted in one way or other, I got a distinct impression that they were all feeling relieved. That the only person who might have kept them under control had disappeared from the scene (Khan,1967).”

Ayub Khan had not mentioned the names of the persons who had new careers for them. But subtly he had pointedly raised his little finger towards the conspirators.

Undoubtedly, they were Ghulam Muhammad and Mushtaq Ahmad Gurmani who had been earlier relieved of their portfolios by the deceased Prime Minister. Since LAK’s murder, Pakistan has been ruled by untrustworthy politicians, public servants, and bureaucrats.

Foreign meddling in internal concerns led to terrorism in Pakistan. Every problem the Pakistani government and people faced after this entailed a violent leader’s death.

Conclusion

Pakistan has a history of unsolved brutal murders and killings that, after being the highlight for a week or so, are sidelined and no evident inquiry is conducted because, either nobody cares about bringing justice to the dead or, most of the time, the conspirators are meant to provide justice and a fair system.

Upon thorough research and sufficient evidence, we can unduly label the United States as the architect of the assassination and Ghulam Mohammad and Mushtaq Ahmed Ghurmani to be America’s extended hands in the entire ploy and the usage of Said Akbar as a likable scapegoat.

Our study identifies the above-mentioned individuals as the cruel and despicable, yet it’s not a weighty term.

It’s bad that the individuals and authorities supposed to find the truth, obtain justice, and prevent future killings were behind this, but it’s not a big deal.

Since then, it’s been a problem and will remain so until we alter and promote honest, just, non-prejudiced individuals.

Written by:

Lyba Mobeen, Maria Mehboob, Khaulah Fatimah Ijaz and Zohra Asif

References

Zahidi, M.J.(1951, October 17).The Daily Civil & Military Gazette (Lahore).

Retrieved from an interview with a Retired Professor, Federal Government College for Men, H-9 Islamabad.
(1952, August 17).Enquiry Commission Report, The Pakistan Times (Lahore).
( October 17, 1951).The Pakistan Times (Lahore).
( December 6, 1951).The Pakistan Times (Lahore).
( 1951, November 1).The Pakistan Times (Lahore).
Nawab Siddiq Ali Khan, N.S.A.(1971). Bay Tegh Sipahi.Karachi: Allies Book Corporation.
Interview of the author with Ghulam Mustafa Shah Gillani, a former member of Legislative Assembly in British India, in Rawalpindi.
(1952, August 18).Liaquat Assassination Enquiry Report, The Pakistan Times (Lahore),
(1952 August 19 ).Nawab Siddiq Ali Khan Statement, The Pakistan Times (Lahore).
Lt.Col. Chiragh Hassan was Administrative Commandant Rawalpindi. See his statement in the Newspaper.
(1951, December 9). The Pakistan Times (Lahore).
(1951, December 2 ).The Pakistan Times (Lahore)
(1951, October 21). Dawn (Karachi).
The recorded interviews are in the custody of the National Archives, Islamabad. The researchers can use it to verify this fact. Pakistan Perspectives, Vol.11, June 2006.
(1951, October 17).Ambrose (Karachi).
(1951, October 17). Zamindar (Lahore).
Khan, M.A.(1967). Friends, not Masters.London: Oxford University Press.
Venkataramani, M.S.(1984). The American Role in Pakistan.Lahore: Vanguard Books Ltd.

Zulqurnain, M.S.1990. Quaid-i-Azam Kay Rufaqa Say Mullaqatain [Urdu: Meetings with the Political Companions of Quaid-i-Azam]. Islamabad: NIHCR.
Bhutto, A.Z.(1994). If l am Assassinated Lahore: Classic Books.
Niazi, Z.(1986).Press in Chains.Karachi: Royal Book Company.
Interview with Syed Amjad Ali in Lahore, 1994.
Mr. M. B. Ahmed’s Interview in Karachi. The recorded interview is in the custody of the National Archives, Islamabad.
Yousaf Khattak’s interview in Islamabad, 1976. The Interview is in the custody of the National Archives, Islamabad

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BIOGRAPHY OF SADDAM HUSSEIN

Farhan Khan

08/12/2022

Who Was Saddam Hussein?

Saddam Hussein was a secularist who worked his way up through the Baath party to become a dictator. Under his rule, some people took advantage of the oil wealth. He subjected everyone who stood in his way to gruesome torture before killing them. After a battle with U.S.-led forces, Saddam Hussein was captured in 2003. The eventual result was his death.

Early Life

Hussein was born in the Iraqi city of Tikrit on April 28, 1937. Saddam’s father, who was a shepherd, went missing a few months before he was born. His older brother died of cancer a few months later. Saddam’s mother was very sad after the death of her oldest son and the disappearance of her husband. She was unable to care for Saddam well. He went to live with his uncle Khairallah Talfah in Baghdad. Years later, Saddam hussein moved back to Al-Awja to live with his mother. But when his stepfather hurt him, he ran away to Baghdad to live with Talfah. Who was a religious Sunni Muslim and passionate Arab nationalist whose politics had a big impact on the young Saddam.

After going to the nationalistic al-Karh Secondary School in Baghdad. Saddam joined the Ba’ath Party in 1957, when he was 20 years old. The Ba’ath Party’s main goal was to unite Arab states in the Middle East.

Saddam hussein and other members of the Ba’ath Party tried to kill Iraq’s president, Abd al-Karim Qasim, on October 7, 1959. Because Qasim refused to join the new United Arab Republic and worked with Iraq’s communist party.

Qasim’s driver was killed, and he was shot numerous times, but he managed to get away. There was a bullet wound in Saddam’s leg. Assailants for Saddam Hussein have been captured and killed in large numbers. They went to Syria, where Saddam stayed for a short time before going to Egypt to go to law school.

Rise to Power

When Qasim’s regime was defeated in the so-called Ramadan Revolution in 1963, Saddam hussein returned to Iraq. However, due to internal strife within the Ba’ath Party, he was detained the following year. But even while incarcerated, he continued to be active in politics, and in 1966 he was named the Regional Command’s deputy secretary. He soon succeeded in breaking out of jail, and during the years that followed, he kept building up his political influence.

In 1968, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr became president of Iraq. Saddam served as his vice president as a consequence of a bloodless but effective Ba’athist coup in which Saddam took part. Saddam demonstrated throughout al-administration Bakr’s that he was a competent and progressive politician, but one who was unquestionably brutal. He significantly improved Iraq’s infrastructure, economy, and healthcare system. He also increased social services, education, and agriculture subsidies to levels unmatched in other Arab nations in the area.

Prior to the 1973 energy crisis, he nationalised the oil sector in Iraq as well, generating enormous earnings for the country. The People’s Army and Ba’athist paramilitary groups were part of the powerful security apparatus that Saddam built during that time, but he also assisted in the development of Iraq’s first chemical weapons programme and put in place measures to prevent coups, including the use of torture, rape, and assassination.

Al-Bakr sought to merge Iraq and Syria in 1979, a move that would have rendered Saddam essentially impotent. In response, Saddam compelled al-Bakr to retire, and on July 16, 1979, Saddam was elected president of Iraq. The Ba’ath Party’s assembly was summoned by him less than a week later. While the meeting was in session, a list of 68 names was read out, and everyone on it was promptly arrested and removed from the building. These 68 individuals had treason trials, were all found guilty, and 22 received death sentences. By the beginning of August 1979, Saddam had executed a number of his political adversaries.

Decades of Conflict

Ayatollah Khomeini successfully steered the Islamic revolution in Iran, Iraq’s northeastern neighbour, in the same year that Saddam became the presidency. Saddam hussein was concerned that events in Iran, which has a Shiite majority, may trigger an uprising similar to the one that occurred in Iraq. His political authority depended in part on the support of Iraq’s minority Sunni population.

In retaliation, Saddam ordered Iraqi soldiers to attack the oil-rich area of Khuzestan in Iran on September 22, 1980. The conflict quickly escalated into a full-scale war, but despite the fact that Saddam’s invasion of Iran was clearly illegal under international law, Western countries and most of the Arab world supported him nonetheless out of fear that Islamic radicalism would spread and cause harm to the region and the world.

The international world would largely disregard Iraq’s use of chemical weapons, its genocidal treatment of its Kurdish population, and its developing nuclear program during the fight due to these same worries. Hundreds of thousands of people on both sides died in years of conflict until a peace agreement was reached on August 20, 1988.

At the close of the 1980s, Saddam hussein turned his focus to Iraq’s affluent neighbour Kuwait in an effort to revive his country’s war-devastated infrastructure and economy. On August 2, 1990, Saddam commanded the invasion of Kuwait under the pretext that it was a former territory of Iraq. The UN Security Council swiftly adopted a resolution that placed Iraq under economic sanctions and established a timetable for the withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait.

There was continued activity with Iraqi soldiers after January 15th, 1991. They stayed in Kuwait for six weeks before being driven out by a UN coalition force led by the United States. Iraq agreed to dismantle its projects for developing chemical and biological weapons as part of a cease-fire deal.

The previous economic sanctions put against Iraq were still in effect. Despite this, as well as the reality that his army had suffered a humiliating loss, Saddam hussein proclaimed triumph.

Economic troubles brought on by the Gulf War exacerbated Iraq’s already shattered social fabric. Shi’ite and Kurdish uprisings occurred throughout the 1990s, but the rest of the world did little to nothing to support them out of fear of another war, Kurdish independence (in Turkey’s case), or the rise of Islamic fundamentalism. Saddam’s increasingly repressive security forces crushed the protests. At the same time, Iraq continued to be the subject of intensive international scrutiny.

The United States conducted a devastating missile strike on Baghdad in 1993 after Iraqi forces disobeyed a no-fly zone set by the UN. Further no-fly zone violations and the claimed continuing of Iraq’s weapons development in 1998 led to more missile attacks against Iraq, which would happen sporadically until February 2001.

Fall of Saddam Hussein

U.S. government authorities under President Bush suspected ties between the Hussein regime and al Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden. Including Iran and North Korea in his so-called “Axis of Evil,” U.S. President George W. Bush stated that Iraq was building weapons of mass destruction and supported terrorism in his speech.

In the end, there was little to no evidence of the existence of such programs found during UN inspections of claimed weapons sites in Iraq later that year. Despite this, an American-led coalition attacked Iraq on March 20, 2003, pretending that Iraq had a hidden weapons program and was preparing for war. Baghdad fell on April 9, 2003, after the military and administration were overthrown in a matter of weeks. But Saddam hussein was able to avoid being apprehended.

Capture, Trial and Death

An extensive hunt for Saddam hussein started in the months that followed. In addition to calling for resistance, Saddam issued multiple audio recordings while he was in hiding. Finally, on December 13, 2003, Saddam was discovered in a tiny bunker beneath a farmhouse in ad-Dawr. After that, he was sent to a U.S. facility in Baghdad, where he remained until the 30th of June, 2004. As he was officially handed up to the Iraqi interim government to answer to allegations of crimes against humanity.

In the ensuing trial, Saddam would show himself to be a combative defendant, frequently loudly questioning the legitimacy of the court and uttering absurd claims. Saddam Hussein was found guilty and given a death sentence on November 5, 2006. The appeals court ruled in favor of maintaining the original sentence. Saddam hussein was hung on December 30, 2006, at Camp Justice, an Iraqi garrison in Baghdad. On December 31, 2006, he was laid to rest at his birthplace of Al-Awja.

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The I2U2 Summit 2022

Aymen Azeem

08/11/2022

The eyes saw another quadruple coalition between the Asian and Western regions to meet the national interests and enhance cooperation. The I2U2 Summit has created a bi-regional bloc of countries that once had bad blood between them and were not ready to cooperate. This alliance of interests tied three regions together on the 14^th of July 2022 in a virtual meeting. This maiden I2U2 Summit developed a triangle by connecting South Asia and the Middle East (West Asia) with the United States of America.

What is the I2U2 Summit?

The meeting was named I2U2 because of the 4 member states. 2 I consist of ‘India’ and ‘Israel’ whereas, 2 U depict ‘the UAE’ and ‘The USA’. Some have also termed it the ‘Asia-Pacific’ alliance. According to the reports, the meeting between the four countries convened in October 2021 when the foreign ministers of the concerned states met virtually. Then this grouping was named International Forum for Economic Cooperation.

Summit is a bilateral or multilateral agreement that is signed by the head of the state in a meeting. Indian prime minister, Narendra Modi, US President Joe Biden, Israeli PM Yair Lapid, and UAE President Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan met virtually for the first time on 14^th July 2022. They met to enhance regional cooperation through initiating a joint economic venture. The leaders discussed the ideas to bolster the economic outcome.

Publicly Stated goals of the I2U2 Summit

The Ministry of external affairs (MEA) of India released a press two days before the commencement of this virtual summit. The press reports that the quad countries in the first I2U2 summit would encourage cooperation in 6 important matters such as water, energy, transportation, space, health, and food security.

Moreover, it unveils that “each country has Sherpa-level interactions regularly to discuss the possible areas of cooperation”. This means adding to 6 substances other matters where cooperation is likely would also be added to the list.

Furthermore, the intention to include the private sector to the build cooperative relations is also expressed. The private business sector would help to establish modern infrastructure for industries that work on low carbon utility and also develop green technology.

Cooperation of the Quad Countries of the I2U2 Summit

Contrary to the nature of the Indo-pacific alliance which includes India, Australia, Japan, and the United States the cooperative nature of the Asia-West Alliance is economic. Indo-pacific group is overt about strategic collaboration. The history for bolstering the financial relationship lies in the emergence of the Abraham Accords. These agreements explain the normalization of friendly relations of Middle Eastern countries with Israel. Biden’s administration followed the suit of its predecessor in the office and tried to reestablish its relation with India and the Middle East.

According to an analysis drawn by Foreign Policy Magazine, the thematic focus of this I2U2 summit was 3S-sustainability, strategy, and substance.

India to cooperate with Israel, US and UAE

Not just Washington but after Abraham’s pact, Israel also needed allies to expand its geographical impact. Nobody ever thought of the formation of a new bloc consisting of these states of I2U2. In Southeast Asia, a power bipolarity is yet to be established in the form of China vs. India. Both are in search of maintaining their autonomy and power bulk with the help of strategically important countries.

PM Narendra Modi’s foreign policy has based on the idea of expansionism. New Delhi has developed good foreign relations with Saudi Arabia and now with UAE and Israel. This step is self-explanatory in terms of strategic importance and energy safety.

Thus, this I2U2 summit is proof that the world is moving fast from conventional warfare to economic warfare. And the countries are struggling to maximize their holding capacity for a big chunk of the world resources. The six matters enlisted for cooperation in the agenda of the I2U2 meeting are the basic resources on which human life depends. Projects like these groupings and Belt and Road initiatives are strategies for gaining power autonomy.

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Are Electric Vehicles the future of Transportation?

Muhammad Saad

08/10/2022

Introduction

Electric vehicles are necessary. In order to keep the planet’s temperature from rising too much, the International Energy Agency (IEA) predicts that carbon emissions worldwide will have to drop to zero by the year 2050. To accomplish this objective, businesses may take action by converting to energy sources that use renewable resources and using technology that collects carbon.

According to the findings of our Supertrends report, governments and businesses will increase their efforts to introduce new technologies in the near future. Some examples of these efforts include the utilization of environmentally friendly construction materials in infrastructure projects and the use of electric vehicles for transportation.

Electric vehicles the path to sustainable transport

The transportation industry is a substantial contributor to worldwide emissions of greenhouse gases due to the fact that it is a huge user of fossil fuels. The infrastructure for energy transition, transportation, and communications is likely to receive an increase in funding from national governments in both the United States and Europe.

For example, traditional building materials are being phased out in favour of new types of cement and concrete that are both renewable and sustainable and also help to soak up carbon emissions.

In addition to this, the use of electric vehicles (EVs) is becoming more widespread. We forecast that by the year 2030, electric vehicles will account for 45 percent of the total yearly sales of cars worldwide.

How green are electric vehicles?

The kind of power source that an electric vehicle employs is one of the components that defines how environmentally friendly it is. Vehicles powered by internal combustion engines use fossil fuels and release a significant number of pollutants that contribute to global warming.

On the other hand, electric vehicles (EVs) may get their power from renewable energy sources and use lithium-ion batteries that can be recharged. Because of this, their carbon footprint will be smaller over the course of their lifetime.

In order for an electric vehicle (EV) to have less impact on the environment caused by carbon emissions, the renewable energy source used to power the vehicle is not the only thing that counts.

Both the raw materials used in the manufacturing of cars and the raw materials utilized in the production of batteries are essential. The majority of the automotive industry is making significant strides toward the goal of transitioning to all-electric vehicles within the current or next decade.

This has a direct negative impact on the supply chains for semiconductors, batteries, lithium, nickel, graphite, cathode, and separators.

The total number of electric cars sold around the globe reached 6.7 million in 2021, with 4.8 million of them being battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and 1.9 million being plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).

The increasing popularity of electric vehicles will drive the need for charging stations in the near future. According to projections made by Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), there will be a need for around 300 million charging stations worldwide by the year 2040.

Renewable energy for electricity generation

Every stage of the manufacture, manufacturing, and usage of electric vehicles (EVs) involves the use of electricity in some capacity. To lower emissions, they must come from sustainable, renewable sources.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that the demand for power throughout the world increased by 6% in 2021.

Even though there has been an increase in energy production from renewable and ecologically friendly sources, there has also been an increase in output from coal-fired power plants.

Net Zero Emissions by 2050

The so-called “Net Zero Emissions by 2050” scenario (NZE) proposed by the IEA calls for considerably quicker electrification of all industrial sectors. The organization anticipates that the demand for energy will more than quadruple by the year 2040.

The European Union has suggested a new green labeling system in order to assist in guiding private investment in activities that would help achieve climate neutrality over the course of the next three decades.

The plan, which must be approved by the European Parliament and Council, would classify nuclear energy and natural gas as transitional fuels on January 1, 2023. The labelling system recognises “green” natural gas and sets standards for future gas power facilities.

This will have repercussions for new investments in both types of energy sources all across the world. However, in order to create more nuclear power, it will take a number of years because of the length of time necessary to both get permission and build new nuclear power facilities.

Furthermore, renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power are still sources of electricity that have a lower degree of dependability. As a direct consequence of these obstacles, the power generating industry will come to rely largely on gas as the primary source of fuel throughout the course of the next decade.

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Disadvantages of social media influencers on youth

Aymen Azeem

08/10/2022

the picture is for visual effects only for social media influencer impactcopyright to the creator

It’s been almost a decade since the impact of social media on our lives has increased exponentially. If we look back merely 10 years, not everyone was interested in content-making and becoming a social media influencer. Not to mention this, but technological upheaval has revolutionized our lives and introduced us to the other side of the world.

Social media has given an equal platform to everyone to come forward and showcase their skills. This platform gave birth to social media influencers. Gradually, the social podium widened its scope in the form of multiple social applications. These social apps produced numerous social media influencers who have been positively and negatively affecting the brains of youth.

Sometimes ago, people used to meet in person. Now they meet on Face-time, Messenger, Instagram, or Snapchat. These people are mostly pre-teens, teenagers, adults, and young ones. Social media contains several aspects that have increased youth’s screen time and reduced healthy and purposeful social life.

What is an Influencer?

An influencer is someone who uses a specific forum and influences other people’s lives and minds. According to a fundamental definition, an influencer is a person who inspires the decision-making power of others.

People look up to such personalities, follow, and, listen to them. You can get deeply inspired by anyone. It can be your next-door neighbor because he is well-spoken, your Chemistry teacher because she is highly learned, or your football team coach.

Keep in mind the above definition of influencer and add a lot of social media to it. Ta-da! You’ve got the social media influencer. You can also call them bloggers or vloggers. These people are basically the modernized or Gen-Z versions of celebrities. People who do not have social media accounts do not know about such people. For them, Jackie Chan, Amitabh Bachan, and Gregory Peck are celebrities.

Social media influencers use one or two social media forums like Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, etc., and post content on them. Content means videos or pictures of a special sort. According to the nature of their content, they use their voice or face only or both.

They set a specific niche of social life that may be art, beauty, fashion, lifestyle, sports, comics, entertainment, or public speaking and create related content videos and photographs. To fit in the social media industry, they post content on their respective profiles regularly and stay vigilant about what is happening around them. Influencers have created a special cohort where they compete with one another to get a step ahead.

According to a survey conducted by Morning Consult, almost three-quarters of Gen-Z and Millennials on social media follow at least one influencer on social media. Some of the findings of the report are

72% of Gen-Z and millennials follow influencers on social media.

62% of men follow gaming channels.

59% of women follow fashionistas.

You don’t know who your kid is following on social media. These influencers present themselves as the center of the world around them and capture the attention of people. Social media works on an algorithm of views, likes, and followers. The more you have liked, the more you are famous. Youth is the easy target. A person under 20 is more likely to follow an Instagram profile with funny videos than a person over 40.

The Bandwagon Effect by Influencers

Similarly, teenage girls are more into fashionistas and beauty bloggers who produce content related to skin care, beauty, fashion, and make-up. But they don’t understand that there is no creativity in that content. Most of the things they post are the outcome of the “bandwagon effect“.

What you see one influencer doing, the whole lot is doing the same. A cult is created on social media. If someone is dancing to a song, everyone is dancing to the same one. You see, negligent creativity. And the young minds who see such content by their mighty influencers try to be similar influencers.

Sponsorship or Influencer Marketing

Big brands have their own space in the market and advertise themselves through mainstream media like TV, newspapers, and radio. With the advent of social media and its popularity among the youth, a lot of small brands and businesses have arisen. They have created an atmosphere of competition for the big old brands. These products approach social media influencers for their marketing. They sponsor them and, in return, the influencers advertise their product. This is called influencer marketing which means scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours.

Usually, these influencers have thousands of followers, and emerging businesses require a targeted audience. People get influenced by the posts of these influencers and their reviews and buy the same product.

As per the morning consult report, 88% of Gen-Z and millennials learn about their favorite products on social media, 56% purchase those products, and almost 50% learn about such products on social media. Plus, 94% of men follow influencers on Youtube and 83% of women follow them on Instagram.

The negative impact of influencers on youth

Social media is an irrefutable reality and also, and we cannot deny the fact that youth are the biggest consumers of what social media has to offer. The biggest negative impacts of social media influencers on youth are:

False beauty standards.

Clichéd body types and figure-size standards.

Traveling the world is easy and it’s just you who cannot afford it.

Reduced focus capacity.

Memory retention capacity has decreased.

It affects the school work.

Wastage of time.

You look busy, but you do nothing.

Online bullying has become the norm.

The positive impact of influencers on youth

In addition to a lot of other negative aspects of social media, many people get benefits from the use of social media.

They discover new opportunities.

Use social media to start a business.

Promote their existing business.

Find a solution to your daily life problems.

Learn a new skill.

Women especially learn about cooking, stitching, sewing, knitting, and home décor ideas.

Some find a product for their house at a reasonable price.

Hence, social media influencers are not just a curse but also a cure for a lot of problems.

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Is Afghanistan the Graveyard of Empires ?

Lyba Mobeen

08/07/2022

Afghanistan the graveyard of Superpowers

Introduction

Afghanistan is the graveyard of empires. With its significant geopolitical and strategic location, it serves as a gateway between the highly resourceful and landlocked Central Asian countries.

The economically important South Asia, with its warm-water international seaports for trade, has always been at the focal point of conflict, war, instability, and bloodshed for most of its history.

Afghanistan one of the most difficult battlefields and graveyard of empires

Still, it has managed to wreak havoc on the prevailing hegemons of the 19th and 20th centuries, making Afghanistan a graveyard of empires and one of the most difficult battlefields for any foreign power to come out of victorious.

James Michener

“Afghanistan is one of the world’s greatest caldrons,”

Said James Michener, an American author, and rightfully so, as no superpower till date has been able to attack and conquer the Afghani soil.

Due to the prevalent political and tribal instability and the acute geographic location, Afghanistan has been a host to wars and crises that require resistance, strength, and valor.

The paper aims to dissect the underlying and primary reasons for the failure of the big names, starting from Great Britain (1839–1919) to the Soviet Union (1979–89) and, most recently, the United States of America (2001–2021), along with the causes of the robustness and resilience of the Afghan natives.

The paper also aims to verify whether Afghanistan is actually a battleground impossible to conquer or not. Secondary sources like articles, journals, newspapers, research papers, books, etc. have been used to gather information for the research.

The paper concludes that the claim always associated with Afghanistan is legitimate and that it is evident that Afghanistan is, in a true sense, a graveyard of empires.

Be it British hegemony in the 1800s (1839-1919), Soviet might in the 1970s (1979-1989), or the United States monopoly in the 2000s (2001-2021), Afghanistan has made them chew the iron pallets and even played a crucial role in the future demotion of their dominance status and became their graveyard of empires.

Underlying Reasons for the Failure of the West

Each giant’s failure on Afghani soil could have been caused by a number of strategic mistakes and poor planning on the part of the invading party. However, there are a few things that have caused trouble for each state in the same way.

The Topography and Climatology of Afghanistan

Extreme weather conditions (both in summer and winter), which Americans and Europeans were not built for.

The extensive mountain ranges (Hindu Kush range in the South and Pamir Knot in the East) and barren deserts. These set up a good trap for the Mujahideen and Taliban, who were not familiar with the foreigners.

extensive mountain ranges of Afghanistan and graveyard of empires

The infrastructure deficit, which slowed the flow of logistics, all added to the underlying grounds for the poor performance of the advanced military regimes in Afghanistan. This claim has also been validated by Patrick Porter, who has been serving as a Defence Studies lecturer at KCL.

“The geography is very hard. It is a country of mountains and deserts, with quite severe winters, and that makes it difficult not only to fight but also to operate logistically. It limits your mobility, and it is difficult to project power. “

Afghanistan a Plethora of Tribes

One of the most striking as well as the most problematic (which makes it hard to govern there) features of Afghanistan has been its tribal ethnicity.

Due to ancient inter-tribal conflicts and invasions, each tribe and settlement has been rendered as a fort. The natives of such tribes have known and fought countless wars and skirmishes and their brought up has been that of a fighter and soldier.

Anglo-Afghan War and graveyard of empires

The Afghan Mujahideen and Taliban were able to hold their own against the modern and well-trained military because these traits—courage, tenacity, and unwillingness to surrender—were engraved in their bones and flesh.

Jihad

One of the most underestimated and less acknowledged reasons for the Soviet and NATO’s (US) failure in Afghanistan was the inclusion of the concept of Jihad in the resistance.

Afghanistan, being a traditional and conservative country and its tribes being an embodiment of Shariah, protected their religion (Protection of Muslims’ freedom against oppressors) and territory (self-defense) against the occupying states (Non-Muslims) in the Holy War.

Muslims and Shahadat

For a Muslim, the concept of sacrificing one’s life and property under the command of religion and the Almighty Allah is the most prestigious service one could offer.

The combination of a military fight with the desire to attain Shahadat enhances a Muslim’s spirit and zeal by a factor of one million. This abstract feature might not be very appealing to researchers or strategists, but the strength and energy derived from religion is also non-negligible.

The Jihad concept, which emerged during the Soviet invasion, also called for Muslim fighters and soldiers to come from across the world to Afghanistan to support their Muslim brethren (Mujahideen), further leading to the emergence of the Taliban, and the phenomenon continued throughout the US-led NATO invasion.

Foreign Aid for Afghanistan

Neighboring aid, whether military, economic, diplomatic, or abstract, also contributed to the West’s failure. During the Soviet-Afghan conflict, the US, China, Pakistan, and Iran supported and helped the Mujahideen for their own objectives.

The CIA (U.S.) and ISI (Pakistan) were keys to Russia’s loss. The ISI educated, equipped, and armed the Afghan Mujahideen using American resources, giving them incredible resistance against the Red Army.

The US-led NATO Army

When a US-led NATO army chose to confront the Taliban in 2001, the ISI supported the Pashtun Mujahideen (Taliban). This choice may have been a short- and long-term blow to Pakistani society and economy, but a Pakistan-friendly administration in the West was necessary for peace on its own territory and to prevent Indian adventurism in Afghanistan.

Assisting Afghan fighters in their struggle against the Soviets weakened NATO and the U.S. in the area. Former ISI chief Hamid Gul said,

“History witnessed that ISI defeated the Soviets with the help of the US One day, ISI, with the help of the Americans, would defeat the US. “

Also Read: The Post-US withdrawal Afghanistan: What next for the region?

Another huge hit for the Russians was when they deployed Central Asian (Tajiks, Uzbeks, Kyrgyz) forces to counter the Mujahideen resistance, which also backfired because they shared core religious, ethnic, and cultural values, and after initial operations, the element of sympathy and religion (Jihad) arose to the horizon and the Central Asian armies stopped fighting against the Afghans (anti-militarism).

Guerrilla Warfare

With fifth-generation warfare on the rise, the fighting mode has shifted from linear to more complex and complicated. Guerrilla tactics, where it is nearly impossible for state agencies to pinpoint the original source of terrorism and compel them to punishment.

This is what happened with the KGB of the Soviet Union and the CIA of the United States in Afghanistan, which eventually became the graveyard of empires. Due to the excellence of the Afghan mujahideen in guerrilla warfare, sleeper cells, financing groups through third parties and MNCs, a convoluted geographic map, and isolated villages separated by mountains and deserts.

It became easy for guerrilla insurgents to carry out the tasks and then hide in plain sight in those villages where foreign accessibility was almost unfeasible.

Underestimation and Misjudgement

One of the most foolish acts committed by Britain, the US, and the Soviet Union was their miscalculation and underestimation of the threat of toil in the Afghan landscape and the robustness of its people, as “meager” and easily handle-able.

Plus, the overestimation of and excessive dependency upon the power and capability of the Afghan government and armed forces, whose influence and authority was practically nil across the walls of Kabul, was good for nothing, and their poor training, along with the logistics and communications disruption, led to their rack and ruin.

Is Afghanistan the Graveyard of Empires ?

Afghanistan, which apparently seemed like “an easy task,” became the source of humiliation and destruction for the three great giants and superpowers and became the graveyard of empires.

Whether it was the religious, political, economic, or cultural factors behind Afghanistan’s successful insurgence or the deadlock of the big guns.

What matters is that Afghanistan and its natives continue to strive, survive, and suppress foreign interventions till date when the last US and NATO troops are evacuating the area.

Further consolidating, and legitimizing the claim that Afghanistan is truly the graveyard of big powers. As Babur, the founder of the Mughal Dynasty also said,

“Afghanistan has not been and never will be conquered and will never surrender to anyone.”

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Barack Obama 44th President of the United States

Abdul Rehman

08/06/2022

The Early Life of Barack Obama

Barack Obama was not just the first president of African descent. And also the first born outside of the continental United States. In 1961, Obama was born in Hawaii. Obama’s parents eventually divorced, and Barack Sr. returned to Kenya.

He would only see his kid once more before dying away in a 1982 vehicle accident. Ann married again in 1965. In the late 1960s, she went to Jakarta with her son and new husband. He was an Indonesian man called Lolo Soetoro, and she worked at the U.S. embassy. Maya Soetoro Ng, the half-sister of Obama, was born in Jakarta in 1970.

Barack Obama, the 44th and first African American president, defeated John McCain on November 4, 2008.

He supervised the recovery of the U.S. economy (after the Great Recession of 2008–2009). Also the implementation of historic health care reform (the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act). In 2009, Barack Obama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Barack Obama’s Education

The ten-year-old Barack Obama moved back to Hawaii to be with his mom’s parents. Obama went to the prestigious private Punahou School, where he first experienced the challenges of his multiracial identity. As he recounts in his book, Dreams from My Father, published in 1995.

He spent his first two years of college at Occidental College in Los Angeles. Before transferring to Columbia University in New York City. Barack earned a degree in political science from Columbia in 1983.

In 1991, he received a master’s degree with highest honours from Harvard Law School. While a student at Harvard, he made history by becoming the university’s first African-American editor of the Harvard Law Review.

Community Organizer and Attorney

After law school, Barack Obama moved to Chicago and joined the Democratic Party. His project helped Bill Clinton win Illinois and the presidency in 1992.

State representative from Illinois Because of this movement, “Carol Moseley Braun became the first African American woman elected to the U.S. Senate”. “The Audacity of Hope” was Obama’s debut book.

Dreams from My Father (1995) is Barack Obama’s autobiography about his journey to understand his multiracial heritage. While looking back at the lives of his late father and extended relatives in Kenya. Obama taught constitutional law and represented clients in civil rights cases at the University of Chicago Law School.

In his past life, he had a job as a community organizer. He worked for a religious group called the Developing Communities Project. After graduating from law school, Barack Obama worked with low-income people in Chicago’s Roseland neighborhood. And the Altgeld Gardens community housing complex on the city’s predominately black South Side for many years.

Barack Obama would subsequently characterise his time at the elite university as life-changing. While working as a summer associate at the Chicago law firm, Sidley Austin. Barack Obama met his future wife, Michelle LaVaughn Robinson, a fellow Harvard Law School graduate.

He wed Michelle Robinson at Trinity United Church of Christ on October 3, 1992. Barack Obama was a professor of law at the University of Chicago from 1992 until 2003.

Barack Obama’s political career

His election to the Illinois Senate in 1996 allowed him to play a pivotal role in the state’s efforts to reform its criminal justice system and provide access to healthcare for low-income families.

First elected in 2004, he made history by being the first African American to win a seat in the United States Senate. When he competed against Republican Alan Keyes. While running for the Senate in 2004, Obama gained worldwide notice after delivering the keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July.

During his victory speech, Barack Obama wove together stories from his life to illustrate the concept that all Americans share values and experiences that transcend their differences in politics, culture, and geography.

Thanks to the speech, Obama’s previously unknown book became a best-seller, and he quickly climbed to prominence within his party after becoming president the following year.

Media coverage of Obama’s trip to see his father in Kenya in August 2006 contributed to his rising star. His second book, The Audacity of Hope (2006), a mainstream polemic on his vision for the United States, was an instant success upon its publication. In February 2008, Obama made his Democratic presidential nomination announcement in the Old State Capitol in Springfield, Illinois, where Abraham Lincoln served as a state senator.

Senator Barack Obama

Barack Obama was elected to the Illinois State Senate in 1996 as a Democrat representing Hyde Park on the South Side. While in office, Obama was able to get support from both Republicans and Democrats in formulating ethics and health care reform legislation despite the fact that the state senate was under complete Republican control throughout his term.

He collaborated with law enforcement officials to demand the videotaping of interrogations and confessions in all capital cases, backed subsidies for early childhood education programmes, and aided in the introduction of a state earned income tax credit for working poor individuals.

Barack Obama sought unsuccessfully for the U.S. Democratic candidacy in 2000. House seat held by the well-liked, four-term incumbent Bobby Rush. Obama made news when, as a state senator, he announced his opposition to President George W. Bush’s desire to go to war in Iraq.

obama protested on Chicago's Federal Plaza

In October 2002, he protested on Chicago’s Federal Plaza against a resolution that allowed the use of force against Iraq. I oppose unnecessary wars. I am aware that even a successful war against Iraq would need an indefinite period of American occupation, at an unknown cost, with unforeseeable results.

2008 Presidential Campaign

Barack Obama’s presidential campaign began on February 10, 2007. After winning the Iowa primary, he faced former first lady and New York senator Hillary Clinton. Clinton won the Democratic nomination in June 2008 after a gruelling primary.
Obama’s running partner is Joseph R. Biden Jr., Delaware’s senator since 1972.

As a Democrat, he ran for president and commanded the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. McCain, a Vietnam veteran and POW, opposed Obama. He partnered with Sarah Palin. Palin would have become the first female vice president in American history.
As in the primaries, Obama sought popular support. He used his charm, unusual life story, and motivating message of transformation and hope to draw big audiences in the U.S. and overseas. They tried to engage new voters, mostly black or young, in Obama’s demographics.
The nation’s focus was on the economy before the election, and both Obama and McCain strove to establish that they had stronger plans. Most polls showed Obama leading a few weeks before the election.

Madelyn Dunham, Obama’s paternal grandmother, died of cancer on Election Day. She played a big role in her grandson’s life and observed his historic campaign from Honolulu.
Obama won battleground and GOP strongholds (Virginia, Indiana) (Florida, Ohio). Voter lines on November 4 predicted a record turnout and a Democratic triumph.

Obama celebrated his historic win at Chicago’s Grant Park with wife Michelle and children Malia and Sasha. “The climb ahead is steep” I’ve never been more confident in America’s success. Our aim may take more than a year or a term. Our country will succeed, I promise.

Barack Obama’s First Term as President

Barack Obama was inaugurated as the country’s first Black president on January 20, 2009. A new attendance record was set by the 1.8 million people who braved the cold to see Obama’s inauguration.

Chief Justice John Roberts Jr. administered Obama’s oath of office using the same Bible that President Abraham Lincoln had at his first inauguration.

The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, which offers legal protection for the fight for equal pay for women, was signed by Obama as his first official presidential act.

Only nine days after assuming office, he did this. Obama implemented a stimulus package in response to the financial crisis he inherited, bailed out Wall Street and the struggling auto industry, and lowered taxes for working people.

Obama set up a schedule for the departure of American soldiers from Iraq and started talks with Cuba, Iran, and Venezuela. For his extraordinary efforts to advance international diplomacy and inter-peoples collaboration as well as “for his vision of and work toward a world without nuclear weapons,” he received the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize.

Obama signed the Affordable Care Act, sometimes referred to as “Obamacare,” on March 23, 2010. Every American was required to have health insurance, but it also provided coverage for those with pre-existing conditions (a group that was previously frequently denied coverage) and mandated health insurance providers to spend at least 80% of premiums on actual medical services. Its goal was to ensure that every American had access to affordable healthcare.

Osama bin Laden, the mastermind of the September 11 Attacks, was captured and killed by Seal Team Six on May 2, 2011. During the effort to gather Al-Qaeda evidence, no Americans perished.

Also Read: President of America Joe Biden’s Biography

Barack Obama’s Second Term as President

Barack Obama won reelection in 2012 against Mitt Romney and Paul Ryan. Republicans captured both houses of Congress in 2014’s midterm elections, creating a tough scenario.

His second term included worldwide events. Obama spoke out against Bashar al-use Assad’s of chemical weapons in 2013, saving Syria from a direct assault after al-Assad agreed to give up his chemical weapons.

His work on the Iran Nuclear Deal, which allowed inspectors inside Iran to ensure it was within the stipulated limit of enriched uranium, may have been a turning point in his international diplomatic career. Trump rescinded the deal in 2018.

The Supreme Court legalised gay marriage on June 26, 2015, marking another Obama milestone. Obama added, “We are huge, broad, and varied; a country of individuals with various origins and views, different experiences and tales, but connected by our common vision that America is a place where you can create your own future no matter who you are, how you started out, or how and who you love.”

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Afghan Refugees in Pakistan

Abdul Rehman

08/03/2022

History and migration

In 1979 the first wave of Afghan refugees in Pakistan started. During the Soviet-Afghan War, a large number of Afghans fled their nation. Thousands more followed, fleeing “tough, if not impossible” conditions. Including the danger of mass arrests, killings, assaults on public meetings, the destruction of Afghan infrastructure, and the targeting of Afghanistan’s agricultural and industrial sectors.

Sheltering Afghan Refugees in Pakistan

Throughout the decade, there were three million Afghan refugees in Pakistan and around two million in Iran. However, other estimates suggest that by 1990, Pakistan was home to almost 4.5 million undocumented Afghan refugees.

With assistance from the UNHCR and primary funding from the United States government. Pakistan continued to welcome and facilitate the integration of these Afghan refugees.

Approximately 3,3 million Afghan refugees were sheltered in 340 refugee camps along the Afghan-Pakistan border in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa towards the end of 1988. (KP).

In November 1988, The New York Times claimed that around 100,000 refugees resided in Peshawar and more than two million lived in KP (known as the North-West Frontier Province at the time). The Jalozai camp, located on the outskirts of Peshawar, was one of the biggest refugee camps in the NWFP.

Despite the fact that, by migrating, many Afghan refugees averted extreme bloodshed. They were nevertheless vulnerable to political injustice and discrimination at the hands of Pakistan, their host nation. In Pakistan, perceptions and sentiments regarding Afghan refugees saw a significant shift in the decade that followed.

Pakistan’s Reliance on the U.S. Support

Despite the fact that the country first welcomed these migrants, adopting “terms from Islamic discourse to justify receiving these refugees in their moment of need.” It rapidly turned on its subjects and began to blame them for a number of problems.

That plagued the country for the next three decades (until their eventual repatriation from 2001 to 2009), including terrorism, unemployment, disease, and various conflicts.

This might be attributed in part to Pakistan’s reliance on U.S. support. Which increased from about $160 million in 1984 to almost $630 million in 1987. This funding may have convinced Pakistan to house Afghan refugees as opposed to focusing on humanitarian concerns.

As a consequence, Afghan refugees were subject to a variety of inequities, including a lack of political representation. Afghan migrants were forced to register with one of seven Islamic parties pre-approved by the Pakistani government in order to relocate to Pakistan.

In doing so, the Pakistani authorities aimed to thwart the formation of a single organization on behalf of Afghan refugees. Therefore, preventing the “Palestinianization” of Pakistan. As a consequence, Afghan migrant voices were mostly repressed.

Refugees voluntarily returning to Afghanistan

This “extreme” language reappeared after September 11 as proof of the last change in Pakistan’s stance toward Afghan migrants. Prior to September 11, 2001, the Pakistani government had ceased distributing food rations to refugee settlements.

However, as a result of the World Trade Center attacks and the accompanying worldwide emphasis on Afghanistan. Pakistan chose to work toward the total return of Afghan refugees. With the assistance of the UNHCR, Pakistan started to support the “voluntary return” of these refugees.

Approximately 1.52 million refugees were “voluntarily returned” by Pakistan between March and December of 2002. And an additional 5 million over the next six years.

Nonetheless, there is considerable evidence to imply that these repatriations were not as “voluntary” as stated, as a joint study from the UNHCR and Pakistan indicated that 82% of refugees did not desire to return home.

Refugees voluntarily returning to Afghanistan

Regardless, millions of refugees were later deported and returned to a nation where they had little to no capacity to make a living, which was worsened by the shortage of resources compared to the number of refugees being deported.

Pakistan Issues Identity Cards to Afghan Refugees

Pakistan has concluded a months-long campaign to register Afghan refugees and issue them identity cards that will protect and safeguard their interests.

Campaign Supported by the U.N

The government-run campaign, supported by the U.N. refugee agency, began in mid-April. The registration drive has updated the data of some 1.4 million Afghan refugees. This is the first large-scale effort to verify the status of refugees in Pakistan in the last 10 years.

UNHCR spokesman Babar Baloch

UNHCR spokesman Babar Baloch says the refugees are given so-called smart identity cards. Which legitimizes their status and facilitates their access to humanitarian aid and other benefits.

“The new identity cards are an essential protection tool for Afghan refugees and give them faster and safer access to health and education facilities and to financial services as well.”

“This drive also provided an opportunity for Afghan refugees to flag any specific protection needs for vulnerabilities.”

The Taliban in Afghanistan

The UNHCR reports that more than 300,000 Afghans have fled to Pakistan since the Taliban took over their country in August. Their situation is precarious as most have entered the country illegally and may be liable for deportation.

The United Nations warns Afghanistan is becoming one of the world’s worst humanitarian crises. It notes that 24.4 million people, more than half of the population, need life-saving humanitarian assistance.

It says more than 9 million Afghans are displaced within the country, with little prospect of returning soon to the homes they fled.

Hostile Attitude Towards Afghan Refugees in Pakistan

The strong social cohesion that had existed in the past between Afghans and their Pakistani hosts “was deteriorating.” The Pakistani administrations before Imran Khan contributed to this situation by developing a narrative that associated Afghan migrants with terrorism and economic difficulties in Pakistan.

As Afghans were wrongly accused of the December 2014 assault on the Peshawar Public Army School, hatred grew. According to the Pakistani community, “they have acquired a negative attitude towards the presence of Afghans.”

Coexistence Under Tension

In comparison, a formal poll done with Afghans in Pakistan and focusing on current dynamics showed that 82 percent of respondents felt welcomed by others, including Pakistani residents, in their area of residence, while just 4 percent felt rejected by the host society.

The remaining respondents (14%) had experienced both conditions. These findings “indicate a reasonably high level of social cohesiveness among Afghani and Pakistani people.” Traditionally, “social cohesiveness between Afghans and the host community has been good,” but relations have shifted from support to “coexistence under tension” with the possibility of violent escalation.

The Socio-Economic Situation of Afghan Refugees in Pakistan

Education

The 2018 Global Monitoring of Education Report suggested that the availability of education for Afghan refugees must be considered in light of Pakistan’s “very poor” educational system.

According to the 2019-20 Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey (PSLM), 32% of children live in poverty. The majority of Pakistani youngsters aged 5 to 16 do not attend school.

According to Education Cannot Wait (ECW), the UN’s global fund for education in catastrophes and extended crises, as of December 2021, there were a total of 22.8 million children who were not attending school, the second-highest number globally.

Pakistan's "very poor" educational system

In December 2012, legislation went into effect granting every kid, regardless of gender, country, or ethnicity, the fundamental right to free and mandatory learning in their local public school. For the purposes of school admission, a child’s age will be determined using the Form-B of NADRA and a birth certificate obtained in accordance with the regulations; however that almost no child shall be refused school entry for lack of documentation of age.

Employment

The economy of Pakistan is mostly unorganized and unreported. According to the source, Afghans in Pakistan are also ineligible for public sector jobs due to their legal status.

UNHCR claimed that a Computerised National Identity Card (CNIC) was a “necessary precondition for accessing career opportunities in the official sector” and that refugees had “very limited access to the established job market.”

While “many refugees were found to be talented and self-employed,” there were no Afghan refugees working in the official economy (public or private sector) due to the lack of a national identity card.

very limited access to the established job market

While unskilled or low-skilled Afghan immigrants are employed in the “transportation business (without driver’s licenses), as tailors, junk collectors, and shopkeepers.” They also raise and trade animals, serve as security guards, washermen, and waiters,’ operate mobile food stalls or tandoors (bakeries) or mobile repair shops, and are employed in mines or industrial plants around Pakistan.

Access of documents to Afghan Refugees in Pakistan

Hospitals, the NADRA, and local governments (Union Councils) can issue birth certificates. Children born in hospitals are automatically issued birth certificates regardless of nationality. In addition, “there is no central database and no automatic registration mechanism for the numerous infants delivered outside of hospitals.” Despite the fact that birth registration is theoretically required, many births in the nation (including those of Afghan children) are not registered.

In the past, the Pakistani media reported that Afghan migrants received computerized national identity cards (CNICs) through unofficial channels.

The head of the NADRA revealed that some Afghan nationals got CNICs by pretending to be Pakistani residents’ relatives. The NADRA has canceled these cards. However, in January 2021, Pakistan’s interior minister said that up to 200,000 CNICs had been revoked because Afghan residents had gained them through illegal ways, such as providing fraudulent birth certificates.

Being prohibited from possessing SIM cards, Afghans without Proof of Resident cards have reportedly sought alternative solutions, such as obtaining a SIM card in the name of another person, borrowing mobile phones from a friend, or using SIM cards issued by mobile operators based in Afghanistan.

Registration Drive for Afghan Refugees in Pakistan

There are 40 verification sites that were set up across Pakistan during the registration drive last year. The mobile registration vans sought out Afghan refugees living in remote areas.

A mass information campaign was also carried out to explain the purpose of the campaign to Afghan refugees. This effort has paid off with large numbers participating said Baloch.

“Among them, there were 200,000 children under the age of five who were registered by their refugee parents,” Baloch said. “More than 700,000 new smart identity cards have also been issued to date. The remaining cards will be printed and distributed in early 2022. These cards are valid until 30th of June 2023.”

Baloch says the campaign is part of a wider effort to assist and protect Afghan refugees. Gathering more detailed information about the refugees, he says will enable the government and aid agencies to better tailor assistance to them.

In addition, he says it will facilitate support for those refugees who decide to return home when conditions in Afghanistan allow.

Overview of extensions of the validity of Proof of Residency (PoR) cards

PoR cards originally issued in 2006–2007	PoR cards are valid until December 2009
March 2010	PoR cards are valid until 31 December 2012
December 2012	Six-months extension given until 31 June 2013
July 2013	PoR cards are extended until 31 December 2015
January 2016	Six-month extension until 30 June 2016
June 2016	Six-month extension until 31 December 2016
September 2016	Three-month extension until 31 March 2017
February 2017	Nine-month extension 31 December 2017
3 January 2018	One-month extension until 31 January 2018
31 January 2018	Two-month extension until March 2018
March 2018	Three-month extension until 30 June 2018
30 June 2018	Three-month extension until September 2018
October 2018	PoR cards are extended until 30 June 2019
27 June 2019	PoR cards are extended until 30 June 2020
2021 (DRIVE exercise)	PoR smartcards are valid until 30 June 2023

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Where is Hamas Funding coming from?

Muhammad Saad

08/02/2022

Introduction

Some Israeli media reports say that Palestinian diaspora also funds Hamas. Hamas is a Palestinian political and religious organization. Its goal is the destruction of Israel and its replacement with an Islamic state. It has controlled the Gaza Strip since 2007, when it won elections there.

Funding

The majority of financing comes from private people and organizations in these nations. The Palestinian diaspora, which includes Palestinians residing in the United States and Europe, provides Hamas funding.

The next largest source of income comes from government-sponsored aid programs. These programs provide aid to Palestinians who want to build schools, hospitals or other infrastructure projects in Gaza.

In addition to direct aid payments through USAID (United States Agency for International Development), Congress has authorized funding for anti-terrorism activities under Section 906(b)(2)(A)(iii)(II)(aa) – “to support programs designed to promote stability within a region where there could potentially be destabilizing impacts due to conflicts among religious groups”.

Running a Government in Gaza

Hamas runs a large de facto government in the Gaza Strip, providing services such as primary education and healthcare.

It runs a large de facto government in the Gaza Strip, providing services such as primary education and healthcare.

The organization also provides social services such as welfare and social welfare.

Iran Funding Hamas

Hamas receives $50 million a year from Iran for the military wing of its organization. The Iranian government supplies Hamas with weapons, funds, and training. Hamas receives approximately 50 million dollars annually from the Iranian regime for its military wing.

This money is used to fund its operations in Gaza and other parts of Palestine. The group has also been accused of receiving training from Hezbollah in Lebanon, where it operates freely as well.

The Diaspora Fundings

Hamas gets support from the diaspora, namely Muslim community members living abroad in Europe, Canada, and the United States.

A diaspora is a group of people who have left their home country and are now living abroad. In this case, the diaspora would be made up of Muslims living in Europe, Canada, and the United States.

Hamas gets support from Muslim community members living abroad. It receives donations from them through various channels such as banks and post offices.

They also receive financial aid from charities based in these countries like Islamic Relief Worldwide (IRW). IRW provides humanitarian assistance to Palestinians suffering under occupation by Israel, World Vision International, Mercy Corps International, Christian Aid Mission UK, Christian Friends of Palestine US, etc.

Hamas Funding Supported by Saudi Arabia

the group receives support from some wealthy Arabs in Saudi Arabia and many other Persian Gulf states.

It receives support from some wealthy Arabs in Saudi Arabia and many other Persian Gulf states. These nations see Israel as an enemy. So, they provide financial aid as a means of helping Hamas achieve its goal of destroying Israel.

Other Sources of Funding

There are several different sources of Hamas funding. First, the diaspora community—Muslim community members living abroad in Europe, Canada, and the United States—provides financial assistance through their own organizations and charities.

Second, wealthy Arabs living in Saudi Arabia provide financial support to Hamas’s terrorist activities as well as other terrorist groups like al-Qaeda or Hezbollah. Third, Middle Eastern governments also fund some operations that support various militant factions within Israel’s borders (including Hamas).

Iran and Hamas

Iran and Hamas’s military growth and ideological rifts were rekindled in ways that directly contributed to the current violence in the Gaza Strip.

More Israeli civilians were murdered by Hamas and other terrorist organizations in the recent Gaza clash than were killed during the whole 50-day conflict in 2014.

According to Hamas political bureau leader Ismail Haniyeh on May 21st, Tehran “did not hold back with money, weaponry, and technological backing” in allowing this heavy onslaught.

After five days of intense warfare, the Iranian government media source Tasnim News claimed to have received a phone call from Esmail Qaani, chief of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps-Qods Force (IRGC-QF), who praised Hamas’ conduct and praised Haniyeh.

Other major Iran-backed armed organizations, such as Hezbollah in Lebanon, Kataib Hezbollah in Iraq, and the Houthis in Yemen, repeated similar messages.

More than a one-off, the praise-giving shows a steady improvement in ties between Iran’s “ax de résistance” and Hamas, despite the ideological divide between Shias and Sunnis that has existed for years.

Conclusion

Hamas funding is complex and varied. There are many sources of support for the organization, including donors in the Middle East and overseas. Some of these funds come from wealthy donors in Saudi Arabia or other Gulf states, while others originate from diaspora communities around Europe or North America.

While there are no definitive sources of Hamas Funding, we can say with certainty that at least some money comes from these three categories—though it’s unlikely that any single one provides all of its operating costs.”

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History of Women’s Rights

Javeria Daud

08/02/2022

What Are Women’s Rights?

Women’s rights are rights and prerogatives claimed for girls and women worldwide. These rights also form the basis of the women’s rights movement.

In many countries, these rights are institutionalized and supported by law while in other countries they are ignored and repressed. Women’s rights include the right to bodily integrity and autonomy, the right to vote, to hold public office, to own property, to get education and equal rights in family law and also the right to work.

When Did the Women’s Rights Movement Start?

The first national women’s rights movement occurred in Seneca Falls, New York in July 1848. It ended with a triumphant adoption of the amendment on August 26, 1920. And undoubtedly it resulted in the single largest extension of democratic voting rights in American history.

The women’s rights movement, a diverse social movement based in the United States in the years 1960 and 1970, sought the right, opportunities and freedom for women.

The first-wave feminism in the 19^th and 20^th centuries focused on the legal rights of women and their right to vote. The second-wave of feminism focused on women’s rights in family, work, and politics. Whereas the third and fourth waves of feminism were from the mid-1990s and the early 2010s.

A Timeline of Women’s Rights

Year	Events
1867	National society of women suffrage was formed.
1870	Married Women’s Property Act was formed which allows married women to own a property.
1888	Married women’s were given the right to exercise fully independent legal capacity.
1903	Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) was founded by Emmeline Pankhurst.
1912	Women’s gained access to government administration position.
1913	Right to vote was granted.
1927	Women were placed on equal footings with men with respect to divorce, custody of children and also the right of property.
1928	Females over the age of 21 were given equal rights with men.
1938	Women’s were allowed to serve in all positions apparat from those pertaining to military or dergy.
1952	Right to serve in official capacity was granted.
1956	Legal reform were introduced which require equal pay for female teachers and civil rights.

What Was the Women’s Rights Convention?

Women’s rights convention also known as Seneca Falls Convention fought for the social, religious, and civil rights of women. A meeting regarding the movement took place from July 19 to 20, 1848 at the Wesleyan Chapel in Seneca Falls.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the leading women’s rights advocate and meeting organizer gave a speech on the convention’s purpose and goals:

“We are assembled to protest against a form of government, existing without the consent of the governed—to declare our right to be free as man is free, to be represented in the government which we are taxed to support, and to have such disgraceful laws as give man the power to chastise and imprison his wife, to take the wages which she earns. The property which she inherits, and, in case of separation, the children of her love.”

The five women who organized the Seneca Falls Convention were Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mary M’Clintock, Martha Coffin Wright, and Jane Hunt. They also drafted a notice to announce the convention.

“A Convention to discuss the social, civic, and religious conditions and rights of women”

Deceleration of Sentiments of Women’s Right Convention

The deceleration of the sentiments of the movement described women’s grievances as well as their demands. These decelerations also distilled the importance for the women to fight for their constitutionally guaranteed right to equality as U.S citizens.

The deceleration of the sentiments document written by Elizabeth Cady Stanton stated:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men and women are created equal.”

Resolutions of the Women’s Rights Convention

The Resolutions of the Women’s Right Convention clearly demanded that women have equality in family, job, education, morals, and religion.

The convention passed eleven resolutions on women’s rights. All the resolutions passed except the ninth resolution, which was the “right for women to vote”. This ninth resolution became the cornerstone of the women’s suffrage movement in particular.

The resolution also urged Americans to regard any law that places women in an inferior position to men as having “no force no authority”.

Women’s Suffrage

Women’s suffrage is the right of women by law to vote in local or national elections. Women were excluded from voting in the few democrats that emerged at the end of the 18th century particularly . So in late 19th and early 20th centuries, women began to agitate for their right to vote.

The movement for women’s suffrage spread all around the world and with these efforts women’s suffrage now is a right under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979).

Despite these movements, there are countries where women are still deprive of their right to vote. In Syria and Afghanistan, women are no longer able to engage politically in their country.

Are Women’s Rights Being Taken Away

Despite the many struggles and achievements of the international women’s rights movement for many years, women around the world are still missing out their basic rights. They are snub access to education, political involvement, the right to do the job in particular.

Human Rights Watch is still working toward the realization of women’s empowerment and gender equality by defending their rights and enhancing the lives of women and girls worldwide.

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Abstract

Assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan

The Nation’s Situation

The objective of the Study

Research Questions

SECTION-I

The Incident

Crowd Reaction

Enquiry Commission on assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan

Important Characters of the Story

Mr. James Hardy

Foot Constable Lal Mohammad

Khan Najaf Khan

Islam Din

Chaudhry Maula Dad

Mohammad Shah

Dilawar Khan

SECTION-II

The Enquiry Commission Report

Time of Explosions

Loopholes of the Commission Report

Maula Dad’s False Testimony

Mohammad Shah’s made-up Truth

Sons’ Statement

Liaquat Ali Khan’s Testimony

Absence of Ghurmani and Ghulam Mohammad

Commissions’ Credibility

Tensions between Liaquat Ali Khan and the probable Culprit

Ghulam Mohammad

Ghulam’s cunningness

The Real Truth

Said Akbar: The Assassin

Said Akbar: An Afghan National

Foreign hands behind the murder of Liaquat Ali Khan

Leaked Document

Call to Raana Liaquat Ali Khan

Future Impact of the Tragedy

After LAK’s passing

Conclusion

Written by:

References

Who Was Saddam Hussein?

Early Life

Rise to Power

Decades of Conflict

Fall of Saddam Hussein

Capture, Trial and Death

What is the I2U2 Summit?

Publicly Stated goals of the I2U2 Summit

Cooperation of the Quad Countries of the I2U2 Summit

India to cooperate with Israel, US and UAE

Introduction

Electric vehicles the path to sustainable transport

How green are electric vehicles?

Renewable energy for electricity generation

Net Zero Emissions by 2050

What is an Influencer?

Who are the Social Media Influencers?

How is Social Media Using Youth?

The Bandwagon Effect by Influencers

Sponsorship or Influencer Marketing

The Effects of Social Media on Youth

The negative impact of influencers on youth

The positive impact of influencers on youth

Introduction

James Michener

Underlying Reasons for the Failure of the West

The Topography and Climatology of Afghanistan

Afghanistan a Plethora of Tribes

Jihad

Muslims and Shahadat

Foreign Aid for Afghanistan

The US-led NATO Army

Guerrilla Warfare

Underestimation and Misjudgement

Is Afghanistan the Graveyard of Empires ?

The Early Life of Barack Obama

Barack Obama’s Education

Community Organizer and Attorney

Barack Obama’s political career