Home Blog Page 39

5 Things You May Not Know About Erwin Rommel

By
Javeria Daud
-
0
5 Things You May Not Know About Erwin Rommel

Erwin Rommel, a German field marshal. Devotee of Hitler, plot to kill Hitler, D-day launch, Erwin during World War I and World War II.He opted to commit suicide…

Johannes Erwin Eugen Rommel born on 15 November 1891, was a German field marshal during World War II. He served in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany and also served in the Reichswehr of the West Republic and the army of Imperial Germany. Erwin Rommel friends nick-named him Desert Fox because of his audacious surprise attacks.

C:\Users\Hp\Downloads\hith-erwin-rommel-2.jpg

Early Life

Erwin Rommel was born in Heidenheim in the Kingdom of Württemberg, a part of the German Empire. He had one older sister who was an art teacher. One of his three brothers, Manfred died during infancy. At the age of 18, he joined Württemberg Infantry Regiment No.124 in the year 1910. He studied at the Officer Cadet School.

Rommel graduated in the year 1911. He was commissioned as a lieutenant in 1912. He got posted to Ulm in March 1914 to the 46th Field Artillery Regiment as a battery commander. During the World War 1, he fought in France, Romanian and Italian campaigns.

 5 Things You May Not Know About Erwin Rommel

Erwin’s family lacked much of a military tradition

Erwin has an interest in mathematics and engineering, he co-built a full-size glider at the age of 4 and disassembled and reassembled a motorcycle. He start working at an airship factory near his hometown but his father urged him to consider the military instead. He received an acceptance to infantry as a cadet officer.

Rommel Was a Devotee of Hitler

His devotion to Hitler was indubitable. During World War II, he was appointed as commander of the troops guarding the Fuhrer’s headquarters and became personally known to Hitler. When Hitler took power, Erwin approved of his militarization plans. He called Hitler the “unifier of the nation”. Hitler gave him an autographed copy of Mein Kampf.

Rommel disobeyed Hitler’s orders

Rommel was transferred to North America in 1940 to help struggling Italians fight the British. He reserved the tide, pushing the British back hundreds of miles in a series of intrepid attacks, for he received the nickname, Desert Fox.

He also got promotion to the rank of field marshal after this. In 1942 the British halted his advance near El Alamein, Egypt. Rommel prepared to retreat but Hitler sent a letter to him telling him not to yield “even a yard of ground.” He further said:

                        “As toy your troops, you can show them no other road than that to victory or death”. 

Rommel disobeyed Hitler’s order out of the fear that his force would be annihilated. Also, he disregarded the order directing the German Generals to execute Allied commands caught being enemy lines.

Rommel Elevated Coastal Defences before D-Day

D-Day refers to the landing of Allied forces on the beaches of Normandy, France on June 6, 1944. Erwin Rommel inspected Germany’s defense along the Atlantic coastline in the year 1943. He found them very vulnerable. 

C:\Users\Hp\Downloads\PhoNor-USNA-p012623-Omaha-9-10-Jun-unloading.jpg

As per his directions, the Nazis built fortifications, flooded coastal lowlands, and place a huge amount of barbed wires, mines, and steel girders on the beaches. He also wanted the tanks to be ready to prevent the Allies from establishing a bridgehead. 

When D-Day was launch, Rommel’s prediction for Germany’s position came true. But Hitler still not consider to negotiate with the Allies.

Plot to kill Hitler

He was likely not aware of the plot to kill Hitler. A group of senior officials plot to kill Hitler in July 1944. As Germany’s military situation was deteriorating, so they made a plan to kill Hitler with a briefcase bomb.

 Rommel’s involvement in this plot to kill Hitler remained unknown. According to his widow, he oppose the assassination plan but wants the arrest of Hitler. His name also came up during the subsequent Nazi dragnet, promoting Hitler to arrange for his death.

Erwin Rommel during World War I and World War II

Erwin served with distinction in World War I. He fought on the western front in Italy and France. After his success in Battle of Coporetto he got promotion to the rank of Capitan in January 1918.

Erwin also participated in the suppression of the uprising by revolutionary communists in the German cities of Schwabisch-Gmund and Lindau, in doing so he became popular avoiding bloodshed and resolving conflicts. He also served as an instructor at Dresden Infantry School from 1929 to 1933.

In 1949 Erwin Rommel commanded the 7th Panzer Division where he demonstrated the skill of the new tactic of blitzkrieg. He also demonstrated a tendency towards self-promotion and a lack of logistical expertise.

In February 1941 he took command of German forces in North America where he earned the title of Desert Fox. In 1943, the Allies defeated his troops in Africa, he then returned to Europe to oversee the defense in Normandy and he held this post until he died in 1944.

Death

On October 14, 1944, Two generals form Hitler’s headquarter visit him and told about charges of involvement in Hitler’s assassination conspiracy. 

They offered him three options, he could choose: 

  • To defend himself personally in front of Hitler,
  • To face the people’s court, 
  • To commit suicide.

Rommel opted to commit suicide as in this case the government would claim that he died a hero and bury him with full military honours. The germen general had bought cyanide capsules with him for this option.

C:\Users\Hp\Downloads\large_000000.jpg

His death was reported to the public as a heart attack or a complication of a skull fracture. To strengthen this story Hitler ordered to observe an official day of mourning. He was given a state funeral which was held in Ulm. His graveyard is located in Harlingen.

- Advertisement -

CAN PAKISTAN REALLY BENEFIT BY IMPORTING RUSSIAN OIL?

By
M. Hamza Ramzan
-
0
russian oil

Former PM Imran Khan’s demagogue claim of the Russian oil deal to ease the Pakistanis is not as simple as Imran Khan makes it look by praising India for importing Russian oil and criticizing the new Pakistani government for not pursuing Russia for cheaper oil.

Imran khan claims that the so-called imported government is not dealing with Russia, in order to please the U.S government, ignoring certain variables such as the quality of crude oil, location, feasibility, transaction structure, transport bills and refining cost.

Refinery economics cannot be ignored while making such a deal. Currently there are 5 refineries in Pakistan. Byco petroleum and Pak-Arab refinery (PARCO) are the largest, which process more than half volume of imported crude oil, and turn it into petroleum products.

Pakistan imports oil from the Middle East, the crude oil which it imports is “ARAB LIGHT” which is a sweet crude and easy to process. Russia is offering a discount on its “URAL” crude oil. “URAL” has high Sulphur content, making it sour crude, for which specific capacity of refineries is needed. 

As per statement of Chief executive of Pakistan refineries, Zahid Meer, although Pakistan refineries can process URAL but it will cost more. The cost of “3-2-1 crack-speed” will increase significantly. Hence decreasing the refining margin.

The other important variable which needed to be considered is the location, as Pakistan has to bear the transportation cost. It doesn’t seem practically feasible to send crude oil containers to Pakistan via the Indo-Pacific Ocean. As, Indo-Pacific is already dominated by the U.S.A through a series of alliances such as “QUAD”, of which India is also a part.

Moreover, the transactional structure is not there to pay Russia. It is again a variable ignored, if the banks will finance Russian imports? The Ruble trade is another obstacle which needs to be tackled before considering such a deal.

Lastly, if everything goes well even then the chances of providing cheaper oil to people of Pakistan are narrow. As it is not the government but oil refineries who buy crude oil from the international market and then process it to get petroleum products.

Government is then responsible to set the prices of those petroleum products in the local market as per international market prices. If discounted oil is to be imported, the government has to change the entire structure of assigning prices of petroleum products.

Additionally, as the prices of refined petroleum would be according to the international market, the Government would still have to subsidize it, in order to decrease the petroleum prices.

So, the question may arise how India is able to import oil from Russia. It is because India is already 3rd largest importer of Russian oil in Asia, it already has suitable refineries to process “Ural” crude oil, and a transactional structure is already in place.

Hegemony on the Indo-Pacific and being a member of “QUAD” put India in a better position to conduct transportation through the Indo-Pacific.

In a nutshell, Pakistan is a sovereign country and has every right to exercise independent foreign policy but it doesn’t mean to leave one political bloc and jump into the other one.

Pakistan should play her “act of balancing” very smartly and should only make decisions on economic grounds instead of political purposes. Realism is again on the rise and it states that, “Self-interest is the only interest important in world politics”.

Also Read:Pakistan increases fuel prices to unlock IMF funding

- Advertisement -

The Post-US withdrawal Afghanistan: What next for the region?

By
Jahanzeb Nazir Sahi
-
1
US withdrawl

The United States of America withdrew from Afghanistan along with the coalition forces on August 30, 2021. Amid the US pull-out, the Taliban took over Kabul and assumed power. The Afghan  National Defence forces capitulated before the Taliban. There were a lot of speculations that civil war would break out after the US withdrawal, but the Taliban took over Afghanistan in a peaceful way.

There were no revenge killings. The Taliban ruling Afghanistan would have a lot of implications for regional politics. All the regional countries have concerns about the stability of Afghanistan for which they are working. A stable Afghanistan would ensure regional stability.

However if Afghanistan remains unstable, then terrorism, refugees influx, and drug trafficking could perturb regional stability. Here the concerns of regional countries is discussed one by one.

Russia

Russia is intended to fill power vacuum in Afghanistan created after the US withdrawal for regional security  and strategic partnership. It is trying to expand its political outreach to the Taliban through bilateral and trilateral agreements to undermine US interests in this region. The primary concerns of Russia are its security and of its allies, the Central Asian states.

For it, Russia did military exercises in Central Asian states in August 2021 to give a signal to the Taliban that never rush towards its backyard. Terrorism emanating from Afghanistan can be a threat to the whole region. As terrorists or refugees can even go to Russia via bordering the Central Asian States.

President Putin hoped that the Taliban would ensure stability in Afghanistan and said, “It’s important not to allow terrorists to spill into neighbouring countries.”

China

Chinese concerns remain, d minimal during twenty years of the US war in Afghanistan. However, it had remained sceptical about the US troops in Afghanistan as it considered them establishing a foothold in the heart of the pull-out continent of China. Beijing was pleased over the miserable US pull out from Afghanistan.

Presently, Beijing is interested in the stability of Afghanistan so that no militancy should spread from Afghanistan because it could damage Chinese investment in projects like CPEC. Secondly is urging the Taliban to deny havens for Uyghur that are running East Turkistan Islamic Movement ETIM in Xinjiang province. China is interested to use Afghanistan as a  regional hotspot for extension of belt and road initiative.

India

India established encouraging diplomatic relations with the Afghan government after the US invasion of Afghanistan.  It is the  largest regional donor  to Afghanistan and has invested 3 billion dollars in different infrastructure and  development projects. After the US withdrawal from Afghanistan  it closed its embassy in Kabul on August, 2021 with the Taliban advance because Indian interests were closely connected with the US presence in Afghanistan.

India has now no longer present on the ground in Afghanistan. It can not exploit linguistic and ethnic differences in Afghanistan now to perturb  Pakistan from the western border. India has lost its leverage in Afghanistan. Currently, New Delhi is trying to establish good ties with the Taliban to secure its economic investment and trade because the Afghanistan market is a consumer of Indian pharmaceutical and agricultural products. It is sending aid to Afghanistan via Pakistan to create its soft image in the Taliban governed Afghanistan.

Pakistan

Pakistan has always quested for a friendly government in Afghanistan to undermine Indian interests. Afghanistan has remained a strategic depth for Pakistan. For this, its role has always been to remain active. Simultaneously, Pakistan supported the U.S. in the war on terror and inherently supported the Taliban (a perceived strategic asset of Pakistan) by giving them logistical support.

Pakistan’s biggest gain in Afghanistan after the Taliban advance is that India would lose its sway in Afghanistan. It could now have unrestricted trade routes in Central Asian states.  But Pakistan is also mindful of the fact that the Taliban led Afghanistan has emboldened domestic terrorist groups. It has concerned about terrorist  groups like ISIS and TTP.

There should not be infiltration of the above-mentioned terrorist groups and refugees from the western border because Pakistan now lacks the capacity for further Afghan refugees. Pakistan is also having border clashes with the local Taliban on fencing issues but the upper echelons of the Taliban have pledged to resolve border issues diplomatically with Islamabad.

Pakistan is striving to bring stability and mitigate the humanitarian crisis in the Taliban-led Afghanistan. The country held an OIC meeting  in December 2021 to galvanize international support to fix the humanitarian crisis in Afghanistan. meeting presently sending humanitarian aid to Afghanistan. It

Iran

Iran was pleased over the US failure in Afghanistan because America was the common enemy of Iran and the Taliban. In the post-US withdrawal from Afghanistan, Iran wishes to have friendly relations with the Taliban to safeguard Hazara Shia community rights. Due to the US sanctions, it wanted to continue trade with Afghanistan.

Iran became the biggest trading partner of  Afghanistan in 2018 with export of about 2 billion dollars.  Chinese-Iran investment deal of 400bn dollars in September 2021 could increase cooperation of both countries in Afghanistan. Iran shares a border of 921 km with Afghanistan. It has concerns about militancy operating from Afghanistan threatening its security concerns in bordering regions of Khorasan and Sistan.

It also wants to block drug trafficking. Moreover, it wants the Taliban not to disrupt the Helmand river flowing to the Sistan region of Iran because the water needs of the Sistan region are dependent on the Helmand River.

Central Asia

Central Asian States shared the  US concerns about the eradication of terrorism during the war on terror because these countries were also suffering from militancy from terrorist groups like the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan IMU. After the US withdrawal the bordering states Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan have fortified their borders to avoid the influx of refugees or infiltration of terrorists.

These states also want access to the global south Asia market through Afghanistan for projects like  TAPI and CASA-1000 for which a stable Afghanistan is imperative.

Conclusion

Regional countries have more concerns with Afghanistan than western countries. Their interests are intertwined with Afghanistan. An unstable Afghanistan would emanate terrorism, drug trafficking and fetter development in this region. Regional countries are reluctant to legitimize the Taliban regime because no clear picture of the Taliban is emerging and they lack trust in them.

Regional cooperation is required to fix the humanitarian crisis and economic crisis in Afghanistan. Socioeconomic uplifting can end militancy in Afghanistan. Only a stable Afghanistan can ensure regional stability.

- Advertisement -

Climate Colonialism and Heatwaves

By
Arbab Ahmad
-
0
climate colonialism

Colonialism ,the policy of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting its economically was said to be ended in 20th century. But the reign of exploitation has yet to end.

The exploitation of poor countries by rich or developed countries is continued under climate colonialism-when developed and industrialised countries live at the ecological expense of underdeveloped and poor countries s with few industries.

To reduce their carbon emission, countries in Global North went to countries in Global South  to use their land, resources and cheap labour to produce products which end up in the markets of the Global North.

This resulted in not only deforestation, drought, loss of land by indigenous people, human rights violations, and increase carbon emissions and degradation of land due to overproduction. Major countries in the Global North import large amount of crops and meat from the global south which caused increased deforestation, land destruction and human displacement.

The Amazon rainforest, the largest forest full of ecosystem and essential for global climate regulation had had 43,000 acres of land cleared and burned in 2021 to support the supplies of logistics and to clear land for livestock breeding. Between 2001 to 2019 2.7millon acres of land were destroyed.

colonialism

Much of the wood and meat produced in Brazil ended up in Global North markets. Same is the case in the Palm oil industry mostly operating in three countries of Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia and New Guinea.

Between 2018 and 2020,500,000 acres of rainforest are cleared to support the Palm industry to meet the high demand for oil by food brands in Global North ( Palm oil accounts for global 2-3% deforestation).

Meanwhile, the push for green sources of energy has increased the demand for metals like Cobalt, Nickel and lithium, and this again had put the burden on the shoulders of poor countries in the Global South.  The mining of these metals involved human rights violations faced by labourers working in mines. According to data by a London based NGO,304 complaints of human rights violations were received.

Many countries in Global South account for 0.008% of Global Carbon Emission, as the 3.5 billion population is responsible for only 10% of emission. These countries and MNCs not only increased the carbon emission in these countries but also caused heat waves, drought, and floods due to the melting of glaciers. These countries also lack the resources to tackle the threats posed by Climate Change.

The increased pressure has invented a new way of tackling the issue i.e. Carbon Offsetting a reduction or removal of emissions of carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases made to compensate for emissions made elsewhere.

carbon offsetting

This included the plantation of trees and a shift to Green Energy sources. But this also hadn’t spared poor counties in the Global South from exploitation. For Example: In 2014 Norwegian companies caused the forced migration of thousands of indigenous people in Uganda, Tanzania and Mozambique to spare land for Tree Plantation and development projects to build Green Energy plants.

Under the Paris agreement, countries in Global North pledged to reduce their annual carbon emission. The fossil fuels which account for 86% of carbon emissions include coal and natural gas.

Many countries like China and Germany banned the use of hard coal in their countries but they did not ban the import of coal to other countries in Global South and also they continued sponsoring the development projects in these countries which use coal as a source of energy.

Across the globe, hot days are getting hotter and more frequent, while we’re experiencing fewer cold days. The frequency of heatwaves, a prolonged period of abnormal hot weather, is increasing especially in countries in Global South due to continuously changing climatic conditions over the Globe.

It is said that the frequency of heatwaves would be double or in some areas tripled in upcoming areas. These heat waves caused many problems like drought, dry and hot weather, water scarcity, increased melting of glaciers and children’s diseases, the most vulnerable section of the country.

While the effects of heat may be exacerbated in cities, due to the urban heat island (UHI) effect, the livelihoods and wellbeing of non-urban communities can also be severely disrupted during and after periods of unusually hot weather.

From 1998-to 2017, more than 166 000 people died due to heatwaves, including more than 70 000 who died during the 2003 heatwave in Europe(WHO).

But this would hit countries in Asia and Africa differently than countries in Europe and USA. The countries in Asia and Africa already had harsh weather and also lack the required resources to deal with the disastrous effects of Heat Waves.

Lack of basic necessities, harsh working conditions, lack of better medical facilities and low wages had made these countries more vulnerable to Heat Waves. This is also an effect of Climate Colonialism which had made the earth hell to live in.

Conclusively, the changing climate has once again put the burden on developing countries. With least role in polluting the environment, due to lack of industries and low use of fossil fuel, these countries become the home of exploitation by the wealthy countries and MNCs continuously engaged in activities which are aimed at extraction of resources demanded by consumers in Global North.

This has not only polluted the environment in Global South through deforestation, land degradation, use of fossil fuel but also resulted in severe human rights violation by increasing human displacement, poverty, water scarcity ,outbreak of diseases and frequent heatwaves hitting countries all over the world.

These countries while lacking in resources to deal the emerging issues becoming dependent on these wealthy countries and international monetary institutions for aid.

- Advertisement -

Alexander The Great

By
Muhammad Saad
-
0
alexander the great

Introduction

Alexander the great of Macedon was only 32 years old when he passed away in Babylon. He was in charge of a land that stretched across three continents. It was almost 2 million square miles in size (5 million square kilometers). He was not only the king of his home country of Macedonia, but also the king of Greece, Persia, and the pharaoh of Egypt.

So, was it fair to call him Alexander the Great? Absolutely. Alexander academic and historian Elizabeth Carney from Clemson University in South Carolina says, “It’s hard to think of another person whose personal decisions affected the lives of more people over many centuries than Alexander.”

“Because of Alexander’s choices, tens of thousands of people died and a lot of political groups disappeared or were replaced. And maybe most importantly, he helped start this huge cultural project. This brought together parts of the Greek and Macedonian worlds with parts of the other worlds he conquered.” Keeping that in mind, here are a few more important things about him.

Alexander the Great

1. Aristotle Was His High School Teacher

In the fourth century B.C.E., there was no such thing as high school, but Aristotle, one of the fathers of Western philosophy and possibly the smartest person in Ancient Greece, taught Alexander when he was 14 to 16.

Phillip II, Alexander’s powerful father, hired Aristotle to be a court philosopher when he was about 40 years old. Aristotle was one of Plato’s students, but he wasn’t yet a famous philosopher. He would have taught the prince not only literature and philosophy, but also math and science.

How did Aristotle shape the kind of person Alexander would become? Historians only have guesses. Alexander liked Homer’s works, and he slept with a copy of “The Iliad.” When Alexander led his army across the known world, he didn’t forget what he had learned in geography class.

In a 1942 study of Alexander and Aristotle, Michael Tierney wrote, “Alexander’s campaigns led to great scientific advances, especially in the field of geography, and Aristotle is without a doubt to thank for that.”

2. His Father Was Pretty Great Too

Before Alexander’s father Phillip turned it into a military superpower, the Kingdom of Macedonia was not very important politically. Phillip was tired of Greek city-states like Athens and Thebes, so he turned the Macedonian army from a ragtag group of soldiers into a well-oiled fighting machine.

The Macedonian army was proud of its well-trained cavalry and the Macedonian phalanx, a formation of infantry that was invincible. Phillip’s infantry marched in tight formations of eight men across and 16 deep. They were armed with long hunting spears called sarissas, 18-foot (5.5-meter) wooden poles with iron tips. Each row’s spears would come down one by one, stabbing charging armies and horses. In Pakistan, Islamic Wall Art has been a staple in homes as a profound reminder and commitment to ones faith, with Pakistan having over 240 million devout muslims many choose to adorn their homes with muslim wall art and calligraphy is the chosen choice although not many people in the region can read or write arabic. There has been many famous Pakistani Artist over the years such as Ismail Gulcee who was born and raised in Peshwar aswell as Ahmed Parez who had a modern style of Isslamic Art.

After the murder of Phillip in 336 BCE, and 20-year-old Alexander took over the throne. He inherited his father’s army, which had already defeated Macedonia’s rivals on the Greek mainland and was moving toward Persia.

Phillip is best known as the father of Alexander the Great, but Alexander might not have been as famous if Phillip hadn’t given him a huge head start. Historians still can’t agree on who was most responsible for Macedonia’s rise to power.

alexander the great

3. Alexander Knew How to Crush a Rebellion

After Phillip died, a number of towns and areas ruled by Macedonia tried to break away. While Alexander was busy putting the northern kingdoms of Thrace and Illyria back in order, the Greek leaders of Thebes heard that Alexander died in a battle.

Not at all. Alexander and his army flew to the battle when they heard that the Macedonian garrison in Thebes was under attack. They supposedly traveled 300 miles (482 kilometers) in just 12 days. Alexander decided to send a clear message at the Battle of Thebes that followed. Those who try to cross Macedonia did not only lose, but wiped out.

Diodorus of Sicily, a Greek historian, said that 6,000 soldiers and citizens of Thebes died before the city burnt.

alexander the great

4. He Stomped the Persian Empire

The Persian Empire was in charge of the Mediterranean for 200 years when Alexander marched his army across the Hellespont to face King Darius III, who was in charge of more than 2.5 million soldiers.

Near the Persian town of Gaugamela, where the battle turned out to be the most important one, Darius had the land leveled and cleared so that his horse-drawn chariots would have an advantage. At Gaugamela, the Persians outnumbered the Macedonians five to one. This seemed impossible to overcome, but Darius ended up playing right into Alexander’s hands.

Alexander sent in a lot of troops in what is called a “pawn sacrifice” to draw Darius’s troops to the right flank. The troops that were killed were able to keep Darius’ attention for long enough for Alexander to attack with his cavalry through a weak spot in the middle of the Persian line. Darius turned and ran away as Alexander’s famous cavalry smashed through the Persian defenses.

After one of Darius’s cousins killed him and gave Alexander his head, Alexander became the new king of all of Persia. This made the Macedonian empire reach from modern-day Israel to modern-day Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan.

5. He Was a Globalist

Alexander’s victories over the Persian Empire, Egypt, and parts of India marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period. During this time, Greek culture and politics spread across the vast Macedonian Empire.

Alexander wasn’t a Greek nationalist who wanted to bring Greek traditions to every country he took over. Instead, he incorporated foreign customs and religious beliefs into his growing empire. This earned him the loyalty of the people he had just conquered.

The result was a network of trade and military power led by people who spoke Greek. This network ruled the Mediterranean and Near East for three hundred years.

- Advertisement -

Who Was Jabir Ibn Hayyan?

By
Javeria Daud
-
0
jabir ibn hayyan

Abu Mussa Jabir Ibn Hayyan also known as father of chemistry. His contributions and discovers, Alchemical writings.

Abu Mussa Jabir Ibn Hayyan also called al-Harrani and al-Sufi is known for his contributions. He was born in 721 AD in Iran. He is an of author variety of works in Arabic, known as Jabirian Corpus. Jabir Ibn Hayyan known as the father of Arab chemistry and the founder of modern pharmacy.

Jabir ibn hayyan

Early Life

Jabir Ibn Hayyan’s father was from the Arabian Azd tribe in Yemen who resided in the city of Kufa in Iraq. His father was a supporter of the Abbasid against Umayyad’s revolt and then moved to Iran where Jabir was born. Jabir’s family fled to Yemen after his father was executed by the Umayyads.

Jabir studied under the tutorship of the scholar Harbi-Al-Himyari and returned to Kufa after the Abbasids dynasty took over. He became student of Imam Jafar Al-Sadiq. Imam Jafar Al-Sadiq was a renowned scholar, jurist, and theologian of the 8th century. Jabir became the court alchemist during the reign of Caliph Haroun Al-Rashid.

Jabir Ibn Hayyan Discoveries

jabir ibn hayyan

Jabir’s discoveries paved way for a lot of new things in the field of chemistry.

 Some of his great discoveries were:

  • He devised oxidation, liquefaction, sublimation, purification, distillation, crystallization, filtration, and amalgamation.
  • He told how chemicals are combined without the loss of character as well as how they form a union of elements together.
  • He also discovered nitric, sulfuric, and nitro-muriatic acids. The discovery of these acids increased the probability of chemical experiments.
  • He obtained sulfuric acid from the distillation of different salts together.
  • Jabir introduced properties of substances e.g. coldness, warmth, moisture, and dryness.
  • Moreover Jabir also advanced the sulfur mercury theory of metals which states that all metals contain some amount of sulfur and mercury.
  • He invented a method to purify the element, Mercury. Mercury is used to make thermometers, barometers, position-dependent switches and other instrument.
  • He manufactured Aqua Regia. Aqua Regia is a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. It also remove metals like gold, palladium, and platinum from substrates.
  • He discover how organic substances derives inorganic materials.
  • He also introduced a method of purifying substances by the process of crystallization. Crystallization is a process by which atoms or molecules arrange themselves into a good defined, rigid crystal lattice.
  • He manufacture the incombustible paper and some paint that prevents iron rust.

Jabir Ibn Hayyan Contributions

Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan’s contribution and work in the field of chemistry earned him the title of father of chemistry.

Some of his remarkable contributions were:

  • Jabir Ibn Hayyan developed more than 20 different lab equipment. These equipments are still used in laboratories.
  • He wrote more than 3000 treaties and research articles in chemistry.
  • His book “The Books of Balances” was a huge influence on scholars across the world. The book applies the science of balance to a host of subject matters from cosmology to mathematics.
  • His views on the constitutions of metals contributed a lot to the theory of chemistry.
  • He also made his writing contributions in a variety of subjects including, medicine, zoology, botany, pharmacology, engineering, logic, mathematics, metaphysics, astronomy, and astrology. But unfortunately, all of these are not present today.
  • He translated several alchemical books and transcripts from Greek and Latin into Arabic.
  • He invented an ink that can read and seen in the dark.

Jabir Ibn Hayyan Alchemical Writings

jabir bin hayyan

Jabir Ibn Hayyan became an alchemist at the court of Caliph Harun al- Rashid. His interest in alchemical was inspired by his teacher, Jafar al Sadiq. His books on alchemy certainly influenced many medieval European alchemists.

Some of his famous alchemical writings were:

  • The Great Book of Mercy
  • The One Hundred and Twelve Books
  • The Seventy Books
  • The ten books of Rectifications
  • The Twenty Books
  • The Book of Balances
  • The Five Hundred Book
  • The Book on Seven Metals
  • Diverse alchemical treatises

His book Great Book Mercy was translated into Latin during the 13th century. The One Hundred and Twelve Books undoubtedly played an important role in organics alchemy. The Book of Balances consisted of 144 treaties out of which 44 are still extant. 

One of his famous quotes about books was: “Make books your companion, let your bookshelves be your gardens, bask in their beauty, pluck their roses, and take their spices and myrrh”.

Jabir Ibn Hayyan was deeply religious. He emphasized in his work that alchemy is possible only by subjugating oneself completely to the will of Allah and becoming a literal instrument of Allah on earth.

In the Book of Stones, he prescribed a long and the elaborated sequence of specific prayers. The sequence is perform in the desert before one can consider alchemical experimentation.

He also stated in the Book of Stones: “The purpose is to baffle and lead into error everyone except those whom God loves and provides for”.

Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan got credits for many of his inventions in chemistry. One of his famous sayings about chemistry was: “The first essential in chemistry is that you should perform practical work and conduct experiments, for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiment will never attain the least degree of mastery”.

- Advertisement -

Prison and Asylums Reform Movement

By
Javeria Daud
-
0
Prison and asylums reform movement

Prison and Asylums Reform Movement was reform movement for the mentally ill in 19 century.  Key events, goals and accomplishments of Prison and Asylums Reform Movement.

St Lukes

Prison and asylum reform movement was a national reform movement that started in the 1840s. The goal of the prison and asylum reform movement was to certainly change the way people use to approach and treat the mentally ill. The movement aims to emphasize treatment and rehabilitation of mentally ill.

Before this movement, the mentally ill were considered a result of sin or demonic possession. A Boston women Doretha Dox initiated this movement.

Dorothea Dix

Who Was Dorothea Dix?

Dorothea Dix was an American advocate and a social reformer. She was born on April 4, 1802. Her father, Joseph Dix was a religious fanatic and distributor of religious tracts.

She founded a school for girls, Dix Mansion in the year 1819. Her book “Conservations on Common Things” got publish in the year 1824. She offered her services as Superintended of Army Nurses during the Civil War.

Dorothea Dix was President of Life of the Army Nurses Association. She holds two national flags for her services during the Civil War. She was also in the National Women’s Hall of Fame in 1979.

Her dedication to the welfare of the mentally ill undoubtedly led to widespread international reforms. Dorothea also recommended reforms in many countries to construct hospitals for the mentally ill.

Background of Prison and Asylum Reform Movement 

In 1841, Dorothea Dix agreed to teach Sunday school at a jail. But what she witnessed there changed her life forever. She was terrified to see how the inmates are locked in cages. How children are accused of minor thefts. Children’s are prisoned with adult criminals. She wants to find out if the situation was this bad everywhere else or not.

In order to check the situations further she visited a number of jails and prisons throughout Massachusetts. There was only one private asylum in Massachusetts for the mentally ill but it was expensive and not everyone could afford to send their family members there.

What stupefied her most was the treatment of the mentally ill. They are lock in dirty and crowded prison cells. Dorothea believed that the mentally ill needed treatment and care, not punishment.

prison and asylum reform

Dorothea then started collecting information and then prepared a detailed report on whatever she had seen. She also presented her report to the Massachusetts State legislature:

                       “I come as the advocate of helpless, forgotten, insane, and idiotic men and women. I proceed, gentleman, briefly call to call your attention to the presence of insane persons, confined…in cages, closets, cellars, stalls, and pens! Chained, naked, beaten with rods and lashed into obedience”.

Goals of Prison and Asylum Reform Movement

Some of the goals prison and asylum reform movement wanted to achieve were:

  • To emphasize treatment and rehabilitation of the prisoners.
  • To treat the mentally ill and insane fairly.
  • Rehabilitation of the mentally ill instead of incarceration until death.
  • To improve the treatment for all people regardless of gender, age, or race.

 Key Events of Prison and Asylum Reform Movement 

Some of the key events of prison and asylum reform movement were:

YearMajor Events
After 1812Reforms to remove children from jails into juvenile detention centers.
1816Auburn prison was opened in which prisons worked during the day and were kept in solitary confinement at night.
1821Around 82 men committed suicide in Auburn prison after being locked in solitary and mental breakdown.
1825Boston Prison Discipline Society established with the purpose of improvement of prisons. It was headed by Louis Dwight. He was the first national figure in prison reform.
1829Eastern State Penitentiary became operational in the year in 1829. It was also known for its grand architecture and strict discipline. It was the world first penitentiary, designed to inspire penitence or true regrets in prisoner’s hearts.
1835America had two of the best prisons in the world.
1841Eastern State Hospital was opened in Williamsburg, Virginia. It was the first public facility constructed for the treatment of mentally ill. In addition to that it also had many modern day luxuries for the prisoners.
1848In the year 1848 Dorothea Dix asked United States Congress for five million acres for the care of mentally ill.
1854President Franklin Piece vetoed the Congressional Mental Health Plan.

Prison and Asylum Reform Movement Accomplishments

  • Firstly, the prison and asylum reform movement brought attention to the treatment of lesser humans
  • The movement indeed convinced people that prisoners and asylums need to have a hospitable setting.
  • After this reform the mentally ill undoubtedly get humanly treatment.
  • It also improved the conditions of mental asylums across the United States.
  • Prisoners sought rehabilitation instead of abuse and punishment.
  • Also the lawmakers agreed and voted to create public asylums for the mentally ill.
  • Under the 8th Amendment, the justice improved. It certainly prevent the cruel and harsh punishment for prisoners. 

Above all, Prison and asylum reform movement was a movement that focused less on a specific creed or race of people. It was a movement of reform that fought for the mentally ill who were a forgotten group of people during that time.

aLso read:History as a linear or a cyclic process

- Advertisement -

Guantanamo Bay Prison and Global Justice

By
Shahnooz Hussain
-
0
guantanomo bay prison

The Guantanamo Bay prison is a symbol of human rights violation committed by the US in the Global War on Terror. It underscores the pressing need for Global Justice. The human rights violations perpetrated by the United States of America at Guantanamo Bay belies its liberal credentials.

Paradoxically, the unspeakable human rights violations by the self-proclaimed champion of liberal democracy and staunch advocate of human rights at Guantanamo are not only a travesty of international law and global justice but also a violation of liberal norms and values.

In fact, the US has tried to justify its predatory and imperialist wars on the pretext of protecting and internationalizing such liberal and humanitarian values that it has been trampling upon in the case of Guantanamo.

However, this is not to imply that the US has only been a violator but to argue that it has acted in ways that significantly undermine the international human rights regime owing to its superpower status.

Although it has been a signatory of different conventions including Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT) it has more often failed to honor its commitments to protect the rights of prisoners, minorities, and refugees.

While it has also ratified various human rights treaties including the Genocide Convention and Protocols on child soldiers and child trafficking, unfortunately, it has also undermined the core values of the treaties by going against them.

Guantanamo Bay provides a glaring example of a superpower violating its own principles and values. It was established in the wake of the war on terror by the US and has now become a global symbol of the violation of human rights. 

Undoubtedly, it has been frustrating efforts of human rights activists, and other international humanitarian organizations aimed at providing justice to the detainees at Guantanamo.

This paper will critically analyze the reasons why the United States, the so-called ‘champion of human rights’ failed to address the issue and why the international community is not tackling the issue seriously. 

Guantanamo Bay camp is located in southeastern Cuba and has been under the control of the US since 1903. The first camp in Guantanamo was established in January 2002 after the attack on the World Trade Center, referred to as the 9/11 incident.

It led the US to launch the so-called War on Terror, declared by President Bush to ‘eradicate’ terrorism and terrorist groups from the world.

In order to eradicate the menace of terrorism, the US carried out search operations, drone attacks, and airstrikes in South Asian and the Middle Eastern countries, especially Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the Middle East countries.

The US employed coercive measures against these countries, forcing them to kowtow to unreasonable diktats. It threatened them with severe consequences if they failed to meet US’ demands.

In violation of the international norm of state sovereignty, the US carried out drone attacks in Pakistan leading to thousands of civilian casualties which were referred to as collateral damage. 

As a result of its protracted war on terrorism, the United States ended up detaining nearly 800 prisoners including children from 42 countries. These detainees, most of them suspected Al-Qaeda and Taliban fighters, were transferred to Guantanamo Bay camp.

Most significantly, these detainees were captured outside of the US soil, not charged for any particular crime, sent to Guantanamo, and detained indefinitely without any legal trial. 

Clearly, by declaring them as unlawful combatants, the United States of America itself violated the international human rights law and Geneva Convention.

The Bush administration refused to recognize or entitle the detainees as prisoners of war. On the contrary, it dubbed them as enemies who are entitled to fewer rights compared to the prisoners of war.

Likewise, literature is replete with suggestions that the interrogation of the detainees of Guantanamo was conducted in a manner that was inhumane and torturous.

Later the military officials and the Bush administration admitted to using interrogation techniques that were considered cruel, inhumane, and torturous by international bodies. 

When the story of Guantanamo became public, the proud citizens of the liberal democracy of America were appalled at their country’s heinous violations of prisoners’ rights.

The international organizations also expressed serious concerns about the US criminal policies in the facility. This considerably and predictably affected the reputation of the US as an advocate of human rights.

Due to its double standards toward human rights, the US became a target of national and international criticism. Various human rights organizations like the UN and allies started urging the US to permanently close the facility.

Yet despite the severe criticism from the world, President Bush unabashedly declared in an interview that “Whatever we have done is legal.That’s what I am saying. It’s in the law”.

Similarly, the Bush administration also refused to characterize the interrogative techniques like waterboarding and forced nudity as torture and claimed that these tactics were consistent with the US obligations under international law. 

In a nutshell, the human rights violations at Guantanamo Bay prison by the US and the failure of existing human rights organizations to ensure the full implementation of human rights laws underscore the need for a universal human rights regime protected by a universal, legal, and democratic authority.

read more: A Race That Will Confront Everyone

- Advertisement -

Utilizing a VDR for people who do buiness Transactions

By
Fatima Shahid
-
0
VDR for business deals

Using a VDR for business deals is beneficial for a lot of reasons. For starters, the security offered by the virtual data room is just like that made available from major companies and banking institutions. For the sensitive files, these electronic data areas require repayment of a service charge for secureness.

The security of them documents is normally maintained through multiple backups, vital card access, and fire control. These features make VDRs a superior option over email-based document management.

VDR for business deals

Picking a VDR for business deals can safeguard sensitive info, which may include customer info. This type of info can also be shared with professionals outside of this company. A VDR allows you to identify the level of get each person can easily have to specific information.

Furthermore, An individual interface as well makes it easy to navigate web directories and revoke the gain access to of particular individuals if required. While there a few downsides to using a VDR for business transactions, the rewards outweigh the drawbacks.

First and foremost, choosing the right VDR for your needs is very important. A VDR for business deals financial transactions is only as nice as its webhost. Make sure to locate a company with high up-time and remarkable customer support.

VDR for business deals

Large, established general public companies are generally investing immeasurable dollars in to research and development to develop this kind of technology. Probably the most common applying VDRs is at merger and acquisitions (M&A) and other corporate transactions.

A VDR for buiness deals is very useful in keeping track of all activity on files. The user interface allows company business owners to download documents, put in force restrictions, and monitor the safety of information.

- Advertisement -

US policy towards post withdrawal from Afghanistan

By
Muhammad Saad
-
0
US Policy

The US policy towards Afghanistan in the future will be focused on diplomatic ties with the Taliban government.

After the abrupt departure of NATO forces in August, the future of Afghanistan is murkier than ever. It strives to enforce stringent religious and social rules of conduct on the Afghan population. The Taliban has unparalleled governance obstacles. They have a shattered economy and rising internal security concerns.

While the United States does not recognize the Taliban government, practical concerns about the country’s security and humanitarian condition pose the issue of how Washington might deal with the Taliban in the future.

The departure of NATO forces from Afghanistan caused waves that eventually reached coasts both visible and invisible. It will be necessary for the United States to devote the policy resources necessary to handle four critical issues.

The government should commit to provide a public accounting of its successes in these areas. It is inevitable that these initiatives will attract the attention of partisans and the media.

The Future of US Policy in Afghanistan - The Media Line

The Biden administration has said on many occasions that it would be “vigilant” on the abuse of women and girls. Ironically, the next months may be the time when Western influence on the Taliban will be most crucial. This is because the Taliban will be looking for the political space. And also financial resources necessary to strengthen their grip on power.

There was a short outbreak of anti-Taliban demonstrations in Kabul. This highlighted the fact that Afghans are eager to fight for their nation. The son of late Ahmad Shah Massoud, is now leading a fledgling armed resistance movement, despite its unclear future.

Its continued existence is by no means guaranteed, in fact, it may be quite improbable. But this kind of resistance will scare the Taliban. It’s feasible that we can use this time to secure agreements that connect the distribution of assistance to evidence-based evaluations of how far we’ve come.

The Unified States and Europe should dispel any notion that the West is no longer united or dependable. For such an endeavor to be successful, it will first have to overcome the partisan politics of the United States. There is also the cautious nature of Europe. It will take some time to rebuild trust. Words on their own will not be enough to overcome this obstacle.

After the withdrawal, there will be little time for the Biden administration to build a plan for post-withdrawal foreign policy. It is possible that the strategy may grow in reaction to new difficulties. In any event, the next months will feature multilateral meetings. During which friends and enemies will measure the United States’ leadership in a post-withdrawal world during a time when Washington is keen to face other concerns.

During a time when US policymakers are moving counterterrorism resources to handle domestic extremist issues, China, Russia, loosely linked terrorist groups in Africa and Asia, and cyber actors from throughout the globe, the counterterrorism objective has merely grown more challenging.

The professionals in charge of counterterrorism within the intelligence community have a wealth of expertise and are quite competent. It’s possible that the government will give the intelligence community the duty of coming up with a comprehensive strategy. A strategy that outlines everything required to deal with terrorist threats originating in Afghanistan.

As was the case in the past, achieving success will need collaboration with partners from foreign countries. A regional effort to identify extremists moving to and from Afghanistan, prohibit private financing from the Taliban or Afghan-based militants, and gather information on the burgeoning terrorist infrastructure in Afghanistan might be an early priority.

It will be necessary to engage in both public and private diplomacy. Tehran and Islamabad need to be aware that they would be subject to diplomatic and economic isolation if they continue to enable foreign jihadists to traverse their land to and from Afghanistan in the same manner that they did before to 2001.

The choices to get out of Afghanistan and reach a nuclear agreement with Iran greatly worsened existing party differences in Washington and disturbed allies in other nations. Adversaries must relish a U.S. policy-making dynamic in which any administration believes it can make foreign policy agreements more easily with the Taliban and Tehran .

To be successful in diplomatic endeavors, one must be willing to make unpleasant compromises, and no agreement will be faultless. Restoring bipartisanship will be a lengthy and tough effort. However, President Biden and his administration owe it to the people of the United States to provide the necessary level of leadership to handle this critical issue, and his legacy ought to be evaluated in accordance with this expectation.

President Joe Biden took his seat in the Oval Office with the jubilant proclamation that “America is back.” Whether this allegation is true or not, the choice to leave from Afghanistan has created a dynamic in which it is doubtful, and because of this, it is essential that the United States show its commitment to partners and collective security.

Since John F. Kennedy gave his famous address in 1961, much has changed in the globe; yet, the need for collective security and the potentially disastrous effects of a contentious approach to foreign policy have not diminished.

read more: US Has Faced Multiple Shootings In 2022

- Advertisement -
1...383940...55Page 39 of 55
- Advertisement -

POPULAR POSTS

POPULAR CATEGORY

©